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MAMIE C. TEX, Taylorville, nl. ve 


FOREWORD 


An experience of several years in teaching this subject has 
proved that no one text book now in use is adapted to the de- 
mands of our present Seventh Revision Illinois State Course of 
Study, and in order to meet these requirements I present this 
booklet. 


It has been prepared expressly for my own classes, but it has 
also been the aim to adapt it to the use of any class in the Eighth 
year following the Illinois State Course of Study. No pains have 
been spared to make it as accurate and complete as possible. It is 
not to be presumed that this booklet contains all that might be 
_said on-each topic, but such material. is given as the average 
Eighth year pupil can understand and assimilate. ~ 


In conclusion, this volume is submitted to you, my dear 
pupils and co-wogkers, with the hope that it will perform its 
mission as designed. 


ie MAMIE C, TEX. 
Taylorville, Illinois, August, 18, 1925. | 


UNITED STATES HISTORY 
EIGHTH YEAR 


FIRST QUARTER 


PERIOD OF EXPANSION—IN FOREIGN RELATIONS 
AND IN INTERNAL AFFAIRS. 


235. The ‘‘Era of Good Feeling.’’ 


At the close of Madison’s administration, James Monroe 
was elected president by a majority of 149 electoral votes. He 
was well known as a legislator and diplomatist, having served 
as Secretary of State and later as Secretary of War under 
President Madison. He, therefore, began with the confidence 
of the people. 

It must be remembered that the second war with Eng- 
land was not favored by the New England states, for it ruined 
their commerce and many merchants. Soon after President 


/ Monroe was elected, he made a journey through New Eng- & 
land, and northern New York. His object seemed to be to. 


heal the feelings of these states. He went as a peacemaker, 
and was everywhere joyfully received. Party differences 
seemed to vanish, therefore, the period of his presidency is 
sometimes called “the era of good feeling.” His first term 
“was from 1817 to 1821, and when he-was chosen for President 
- the second time he received every electoral vote but one, and 
that delegate said he voted against Monroe for he wanted 
Washington to ve the only President who was unanimously 
elected. 

The states were now coming to be united into a real 
nation. 


236. The Plantation System in the South. 


Living conditions were much different in the Northern and 
Southern States. South of the Ohio River, much of the land and 
wealth were held by slave owners. Not every white man in the 
South was a slave owner; indeed at the middle of the 19th 
Century but one man in every five or six owned slaves, yet be- 
cause they were the wealthy and influential men, they were =the 
leaders in Southern affairs. 


4 a a FIRST QUARTER 

Naturally they were bitterly opposed to the abolition of slav- 
ery. They insisted the management of their vast acres demanded 
slave labor. They also insisted that they be allowed to import 
slaves, for the deaths in the rice fields were so numerous, it was 
necessary in some way to keep the number up to their needs. 


In many cases the slaves were well treated. In the main, they | 


lived in little cabins grouped to the back of the white owner’s 
home. Some of the old time plantations are the show places in 
the South today, and on many of them, darkies were born, lived, 


~ and died. The treatment received depended much upon the ~ 
owner, just as the treatment animals receive today depends upon ~ 
their owners. The slave was fed, clothed, and cared for, but was 


paid no wages, and if the master so wished could be sold as we 
sell a horse or cow. 


237. Home Building in the West. 


During the hard times that accompanied and followed 
the War of 1812-15, a great emigration from the more easterly 
states had poured into the Mississippi valley, and rapidly filled 
up: the fertile regions west of the Appalachian Mountains. 


From 1810 to 1819, the population had increased from i 
7,240,000 to 9,000,000. The West had grown faster than the © 
~.. country as a whole had done, and new states had been rapidly 


created in that quarter—Eggleston, p. 240. 


The western settler was of necessity a strong, self- reliant 


man. When he arrived at some point—a place far to the West — 


at that time, he faced the necessity of providing a home for his 
family. Trees had to be cut down and hewn into logs to make Hy 
houses. Land had to be cleared for planting, and as there were — . 4 
no stores or other means of procuring even the barest neces ei 


Ty ties, the pioneer had to make his own furniture, spin his ow 
/ »\cloth for garments and even make his own shoes. 

: Usually several families traveled together and would settle on 

a m.. banks of some stream or lake. In time a flour mill, a general 

store, a blacksmith shop, and a church would form the nucleus 

for a little village. This is the way that most of the towns along 


the Mississippi came into being, for to those living along the 


banks of this river, access to New Orleans was much easier, since 
they could reach it by ship. 


238. Routes and Methods of Travel Westward. 


| When settlers from the East turned westward, they found 
the Alleghany Mountains real barriers in their way. But there 
were three main gateways or passes by means of which travelers 
could start on their long journey. Those starting from New 


‘ 
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FIRST QUARTER 6. 


Valleys and so out upon the great Central Plain. Those going 
from Pennsylvania found the Ohio River an easy means of reach- 
ing the longed for land. From the little village of Pittsburgh 
many overland pioneers from the East gathered to start in their 
river trip down the Ohio. 

In the South, the break in the mountains. known as Cumber- 
land Gap gave an opening through which thousands of settlers 
from the South poured into Indiana, Ohio, and Illinois. 

Historians have attempted to divide this western immigration 
into periods, and even a brief study will show how readily it falls 


into the four divisions: 


1. The forest and road trails—which were followed from 
the earliest times down to about the time of the Revolutionary 
War. 

2. The second period has often been termed the “flat_boat 
era,’ because during this period much of the*travel was by water 
in the old flat boat. This period was from about 1776 to 1810. 

3. The third period was the era of the steamboat. This like- 
wise followed the river course, and reached its gréatest develop- 


> ment about 1850. Its decline came about 1870. 


4 


4. The fourth period is that of the steam railway. It began 


about 1835. 


Prominent among the pioneers during the first era was 


Daniel Boone. To him 3 is due the early settlement of Kentucky. 


In 1788 North Carolina encouraged the immigrant by offering — 


640 acres of land free to each head of a family, one hundred 
acres to his wife, and one hundred acres for each child. By the 
close of the 18th century, Kentucky had a greater population than 
New Hampshire, Delaware, Georgia or Rhode Island, and 
Kentucky and Tennessee were admitted as states while Washing- 
ton was President. _ 

In Ohio, they met settlers from the South and settlers from 
the North. Jhe former had come often down the Ohio River, 
while those from the North were sturdy men from Massachusetts 
and Connecticut. These settlers were of the best type, and soon 


had formed communities, founded churches, and built their school 


houses. But now their chief difficulty was in securing machinery, 


tools, and manufactured goods from the East. It took twenty 


days for a wagon to go from Philadelphia to Pittsburgh, and the 


cost of hauling freight this distance was $125 per ton. 


Before the War of 1812, there had been. considerable 
migration to the country west of the Alleghany Mountains. 
The difficulty of moving troops to the West demonstrated 
further need for roads and improvements, and Congress soon 
set about supplying the need. 


\, 
\, 


6 FIRST QUARTER 


At first the western land had a few so-called “back- 
woodsmen,” who made very little improvement on their — 
places, and as people migrated to their territory and began 
settlements, they moved farther west. Their successors also 
sold the land to later comers at a higher price and moved on. 
Settlers were known to have moved farther west at four or 
five different times. 

People from the New England states moved.down the 
Mohawk Valley to Lake Erie or down the Hudson and across 
to Pittsburgh. The region north of the Ohio was Settled 
principally, however, by people from the states of Kentucky 
and Tennessee. People from Georgia and South Carolina 
went in rather large numbers to Alabama and Mississippi. 

At this time roads of any kind were few, although a few 
states had begun to construct them to some extent. Both 
passengers and freight were carried in large wagons; but 
on account of bad roads, often people carried their goods on 
horses or they walked and carried what they could. It is 
almost impossible for us to properly appreciate the difficulties 
which the pioneer settler had to face. 

The year 1806 saw the beginning of our first national 
road. In that year Congress set aside $30,000 to build a road 
‘from Cumberland, Maryland, to the Ohio. The work of con- 
struction began in 1811 and the road extended to Wheeling 
by 1820. Later the road was extended to Columbus, Indian- 
apolis, and Vandalia, Illinois. Just before the Civil War, 
this great road was turned over to the states through which 
it ran, after the government had spent nearly $7,000,000 on 
it. This work of internal improvement made travel easier, 
increased the sale of public lands, and drew immigrants to 
the West. 

In the meantime the Ohio and Mississippi were being 
used as highways of travel. Many keelboats and flatboats 
were used on the Ohio. Men took freight to New Orleans 
where they sold it at a good price. The journey down took 
a full week, and the return trip about three times as long. 
After Fulton’s invention of the steamboat, river traffic in- 
creased greatly. In 1811, steamboats were employed on the 
Chio. 

River towns were, of course, the most prosperous in the 
West. Among them we may mention Wheeling, Cincinnati, — 
Louisville, Evansville, St. Louis, Memphis, and New Orleans. 
There were a number on the smaller streams, such as Vin- 
cennes. . 

With the advent of railroads and canals, the settlement of 
the West was finally assured. 


FIRST QUARTER q 


THe MeEtTHopsS OF TRAVEL. 


The earliest settlers moved to the West in large wagons, 
where there were roads or on packhorses. In some cases, too, 
they were known to have trudged along on foot, carrying as 
much as they could. On the rivers, the steamboat was used 
and proved an effective means of transportation. These 
methods of travel, however, were not sufficient to meet the 
demand produced by the increase in westward migration. 
The Cumberland or National Road, was therefore begun and 
extended to the Ohio River by 1820. Over much of its course 
it was macadamized. Some private “turnpikes” also were 
constructed by the states. These made the West more attrac- 
tive and increased the price of land. 


Tue Erte CANAL. 

During Monroe’s administration in 1825 the state of New 
York built the Erie Canal. The success, or much of it as least, is’ 
said to have been due to the energy and foresight of Governor 
Clinton. It was an immense task, costing $7,000,000, but has 
paid for itself many times and has had much to do with the 
development of the West. The length of the canal is 363 
miles, and it connects Albany and Troy with Buffalo, on the 
eastern shore of Lake Erie. 


Tue NaTIONAL RoAD oR CUMBERLAND Roap. 

The building of the National Road, which we have 
already mentioned, grew out of the demand for better roads 
to the West. Its construction was also encouraged by those 
who believed it would increase the sale of public lands. Ac- 
cordingly, Congress made an appropriation for the work, and 
it was begun in 1811. It extended from Cumberland, Mary- 
land, to Wheeling, and from there was continued to Colum- 
us, Indianapolis, and Vandalia. When the states began to 
build more roads and when railroads and canals increased, 
the national government gave over the road to the states 
through which it runs. 


239. Growth of Manufactures. 

- The War of 1812 taught the United States one thing, and 
that, was—she must look to her manufacturing industries. During 
this war, we found we could not buy $6,000 worth of blankets 
for our soldiers—and the result was that illegal trading had to be 
carried on with the British to get blankets for our soldiers, who 
“were at that time fighting those self-same Englishmen. After 
the war cloud had blown over artisans were brought from Eng- 
land, and these together with our own shrewd Yankees laid the 
basis for our present industrial system. 


8 FIRST QUARTER 


Samuel_Slater, an Englishman, was brought to Providence, 
Rhode Island, by Moses Brown in 1789 and drew plans and 
erected the first spinning mill in the United States. By 1810, 


steam was being used to run these mills, but our mills were crude, — 


and we could not manufacture as cheaply as could the: English. 


But about this time England and France began a war in Europe | 


which forced the United States to look to its own mills and by 
1809, there were eighty-seven cotton mills in operation in the 
United States. This was further aided by the perfecting of Eli™ 
Whitney’s invention of the cotton gin. But it was not till 1814 
that a mill was opened where the cotton yarn was woven into 
cloth. Up to this time all the weaving had been done on hand 


looms. The growth of the wool industry paralleled that of the ° 


cotton, but it was not till 1828 that a complete woolen factory 
was operated. 


The advent of the sewing machine was the next step made in ~ 


the manufacture of our clothing. In 1846 Elias Howe brought 
out our first successful sewing machine. By 1860 the number of 
Howe and Singer machines in use was more than 40,000. 

Along with the growth of textile industries must be men- 
tioned the manufacturing of farm machinery. This like the 
spinning mill, owes its rise to the War of 1812. Forced to 
depend on local supplies for coal, manufacturers found the coal 
underlying Pennsylvania well suited to their needs, and hence 
there grew up the foundries in Pennsylvania that are it chief 
source of wealth today. For iron ore was discovered in that 
state also, and the boast that Pennsylvania’s iron masters made 
to supply the needs of the whole United States with metal ware 
has been more than made good—for they now SHEE many of 
the demands of Europe today as well. 

With metals being worked now extensively in the United © 
States it was not to be wondered at that new inventions should 


be made. Some of the most important of these had to do with 


farm machinery. In 1846, Cyrus. McCormick opened a factory at 
Cincinnati where he made reapers. In 1849, he opened another 
one in Chicago. Step by step this was developed until today we 
have the combined harvester which cuts and thrashes the grain 
at one operation. 

Though American manufactured goods in 1810 reached the 
value of $200,000,000, most of it was made in the East—Pennsyl- 
vania, Virginia, Maryland, New York and Massachusetts. But 
factories had also begun to spring up in the West—where there 


was water power. By 1821, at Beaver Creek, Kentucky, there 


was a forge, and an iron furnace, several saw mills, gist mills, 


and at least one carding mill. At Maysville, there were glass — 


works and a rope factory. Records show that in.1820 at Cin- 


\ 


FIRST QUARTER 9 


cinnati there were glass works, a tannery, a foundry, together 
with woolen and cotton factories, and a shipyard for the con- 
struction of river steamers. Cincinnati had now become the point 
where the farmer could exchange his grain for American manu- 
factured articles. 


al 240. Jackson Restores Order in the South. 


But while the rise of manufacturing in the United States 
®had its advantages, it also had its disadvantages. Among the 
latter was the tariff question. American manufacturers said 
their goods must be protected by a tariff from the more cheaply 
made products of Europe if our industry were to prosper. 

The first tariff was in 1789. It was very low. In 1791, 
Congress enacted the law that put an excise duty on distilled 
_liguor. In 1816 another. tariff act was passed. This was to 
protect the home manufacturers against foreign competition. 
In 1824, a new tariff act was passed. It was considerably 
higher than the tariff of 1816. The South greatly opposed 
this, as they said it made goods which they wanted to buy from 
Europe much higher. In 1828, another tariff act was passed. 
The people engaged in manufacturing demanded higher pro- 
tection. Congress protected them. This raised the South to 
intense anger. They declared they would buy no goods from 
the North. They called the tariff of 1828 the tariff of abom- 
. inations, and declared the North was growing rich while the 
South was gaining nothing. In 1832 another tariff law was 
passed. South Carolina said she could endure it no longer, 


and openly stated that if the federal government should at- | 


tempt to enferce the tariff acts she would withdraw from the 
Union. She declared the tariff law of 1832 null and void in 
her territory. This was called nullification. 

The people of the South felt themselves wronged about 
_the tariff. They thought they ought to have the privilege of 
_ buying goods wherever they could get them the cheapest, and 
South Carolina declared that after February 1, 1833, she would 
pay no tariff, and that she would leave the Union if she was 
forced to do so. South Carolina declared the tariff null and 


void, and said she believed in “State Rights,” that meant that 


any State had the right to disobey a law if the state thought 
the law was injurious to its welfare. It was indeed a serious 
situation. John C. Calhoun was a strong supporter of “Nulli- 
fication.” 

Jackson sent a naval force under Farragut to Charleston 
harbor, and gave South Carolina to, understand that he intended 
to have the federal laws obeyed. Henry Clay, the peacemaker, 
settled the trouble by compromise, by getting a bill passed by 


10 FIRST QUARTER 


Congress in 1833 which provided for the gradual reduction of the 
tariff until 1842, when it would be as low as it was in 1816. 
South Carolina succeeded in loweri ing the tariff but she could not 
force the principles of nullification to be recognized. 


ig Ve @ 241. The Acquisition of Florida. 


& 

_ It will be remembered that Florida belonged to the Span- 
ish government. The territory was poorly governed and be- 
came a refuge for runaway negroes and dishonest white men. 
These people frequently made “raids upon our southern states 
and stole property and murdered men, women, and children. 
This was bad enough, but the Seminole Indians now (1819) 
began hostilities against the people of Georgia. As one would 
naturally suppose, they were encouraged by the Spaniards. 


- General Jackson, therefore, was sent down to restore order 


and made short work of them. Soon Spain was ready to sell 
Florida and we bought the territory in 1819 for $5,000,000. 


242. Eleven Free States—Eleven. Slave States. 


Negro slaves were excellent laborers in the cotton fields, 
therefore, slavery came to be a valuable labor system there. 
The older states in that region retained it, and their people . 
rapidly settled the Southern Territories west of them, opening 
cotton plantations there, to be cultivated by their negroes. 
Every new state formed out of the territory south of the Ohio 
River came into the Union with slavery established, while 
under the ordinance of 178% every state formed out of the 
territory northwest of the Ohio prohibited slavery. e 

In 1819, there were eleven free states and clever in which 
slavery existed. The people of the two sections had come to 
have different interests, and to wish for different national laws. 

, lhe free states were: Vermont, New Hampshire, Connecti- — 
cut, Massachusetts, New York, Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, New 
Jersey, Illinois, Indiana and Ohio. 

The slave states were: Maryland, Delaware, Virginia, North 


Carolina, South Carolina, Kentucky, Georgia, Tennessee, Ala- 
._ bama, Mississippi and Lotisiana. 


243. Missouri Seeks Admission into the Union. 

Missouri wanted to come into the Union. A bitter dis- 
pute arose in Congress as to whether it should come in as a 
free or slave state. Maine also wanted to come into the 
Union. Up to this time the states had been admitted in pairs. 
Missouri wanted to come in as a slave state, but many people 
of the North were unwilling to have a state so far north as 
Missouri was, with slaves. 


—_ 
ore. 


Ps 


\ 


FIRST QUARTER 11 


The Southern members of Congress would not admit 
Maine as a free state unless Missouri would be allowed to 
have slaves. After much debating, it was settled by compromise: 


244, The Missouri Compromise. 


» The Missouri Compromise was made in 1820, and was 
warmly supported by Henry Clay. This compromise pro- 
vided that Missouri should come in as a slave state, but that 
slavery should be forever prohibited in all the rest of the 
Louisiana purchase north of parallel 36° 30’. This was the 
southern boundary of Missouri. This was giving a great terri- 
tory from which free states might be made, but very little for 
slave states. We shall see what trouble this caused later, 
for it really made matters worse. 

Maine was admitted as a free state. There were now 
twelve free and twelve slave states. 


FOREIGN RELATIONS. 


_ 245. The Spanish-American Countries. 
After the sale of Florida, Spain still retained possessions 


in the West Indies and Mexico. She also still claimed most of 


-South America, but most of these countries had declared their 

independence after Napoleon conquered Spain in 1808. When 
the King was restored in 1815, however, he reconquered these 
-countries. They were not to remain long in Spain’s power, 
for about the year 1817 they began to-rise one by one and 
throw off the yoke. Mexico also succeeded in winning her in- 
dependence in 1821. 

-In 1808, Napoleon invaded Spain, drove out the king, 
and placed his brother, Joseph Bonaparte,.on the throne. 
Thereupon many of the Spanish colonies in America rebelled 
and organized themseives as republics. When Napoleon 
was sent to St. Helena, the Spanish king (who was restored 
in 1814) brought back most of the colonies to their allegiance. 
La Plata, however, rebelled, and was quickly followed by the 
others. In 1822, President Monroe recognized the independ- 
ence of La Plata (Argentina), Chile, Peru, Colombia, Mexico, 
and Central America. 


246. The Holy Alliance. 


The King of Spain, unable to conquer the revolted colonies, 
applied for aid to the Holy Alliance which was formed by 
Russia, Prussia, Austria, and France, for the purpose of 
monarchial government in Europe. For a time it seemed 


12 FIRST QUARTER 


that these powers might aid her, but England asked the 
United States to join with her against the action of Euro- 
pean powers in trying to subjugate the American colonies. 
It was not through love for America that England offered 
to do this, but because she feared Spain might again inter- 
fere with her commerce. The offer was refused, and in®its 
place the Monroe Doctrine was asserted. 


947, The Encroachment of Russia. bel 


Very early the Russians had taken an interest in explorations 
in North America. Peter the Great first sent out expeditions, 
and in 1728 Vitus Bering, a Dane, who had been sent out by 
Peter, gave his name to the Strait that divides North America 
and Asia. The Russians were interested in this part of the 
country because of its rich furs. It was not till 1867 that we 
purchased Alaska from Russia. At the time of the Holy Alliance, — 
Russia began to press her claims further inland, and showed 
clearly that she coveted the whole western coast of North 
America.’ It was in the hopes of making good these claims, that 
Russia joined with Spain in forming the Alliance. 

| 248. England’s Proposal. 

England became greatly alarmed because of the action 
cf Spain in calling on the Holy Alliance for help. She was — 
not a member of this alliance, which had been formed to pro- 
mote Christian government, but had taken on the new aim of 
preserving monarchies, and feared that these nations might 
injure her commerce. She, therefore, called on us to join her 
in a protest. However, the President thought we should 
handle the matter ourselves and declined -the offer of the 
British government. 


249. The Monroe Doctrine. 


The time was now ripe for a statement of the American 
point of view. Accordingly in December, 1823, Monroe issued 
a warning that the countries of the American continents were not 
to be considered as “subjects for future colonization by any 
European power.” He further stated that we should consider any ~ 
attempt of an European power to extend its political systems — 
“to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace 
and safety.” This utterance has long been known as the 
“Monroe Doctrine,” and it has been in force practically from 
that day to this. | 


250. Presidential Campaign of 1824. 
hs President Monroe’s term of office has been well called the 
“Era of Good Feeling” and when he stood for re-election in 1820, 


FIRST QUARTER 13 


he was almost unanimously elected for his second term. He re- 
ceived the vote of all but one elector, who said he voted against 


him because he wanted Washington to be the only President (-/e 


elected unanimously. But the election of 1824 was different:, 


Seventeen different men sought the office of President and this! # 2 


campaign has often been called the “scrub race for the Presi- 


dency.” Six of the candidates showed strength, and four came | 


up before the Electoral College. 


251. Four Prominent Candidates. 


in the election of 1824, there were four leading candi- 
dates, namely: Adams, Clay, Crawford, and Jackson. These 


men were all Republicans, but Clay and Adams were more in | 


agreement than the others. Jackson was doubtless the most 
popular, especially in the West. 


252. Electoral College Fails to Make a Choice. 


As these men all belonged to the same party, the contest 
Was a personal, rather than a party contest. In the count of 
the electotal votes Jackson received the greatest number, but 
did not obtain a majority of all. According to the Constitu- 
tion, the election had to go to,the House of eset EE ey 
where Jackson lost his lead over the others. ) 

When the vote was taken in the House of Bent cnt: 
tives, only the three receiving the greatest number of votes 
could be candidates. Clay, therefore, dropped out of the con- 
test. His friends now urged representatives to vote for 
Adams. This combination of votes was sufficient to elect 
Adams. Jackson felt very bitter and declared the election 
unfair; but he may have been in error in this judgment, for 
had Clay not been a candidate, Adams might have been elected in 
the first place. 

As we have said, Jackson and his friends were very bitter. 
At once they started a story that the election of Adams was 
the result of a corrupt bargain. The*story charged that 
Adams had offered Clay the position of Secretary of State, 


and it helped to make the administration unpopular. We are 


assured on good authority, however, that no such corrupt 
bargain had been made. Many bitter personal attacks were 
made on both sides during the whole of the campaign. 


253. Jackson Begins His Campaign for 1828. 


With the election of Adams, the era of good feeling very 
definitely ended, and hardly fad the new President taken his oath 
of office, till Jackson and his disgruntled followers began to lay 


plans to defeat him should he run for a second term., They de- 


14 FIRST QUARTER 


clared Jackson had been really the people’s choice but by trickery 
had been defeated. With such opposition brewing, it is hardly to 
be wondered at that the administration of Adams was not without 
unpleasant happenings. 


A PERIOD OF TRANSITION. 


254. Adams Well Qualified for the Presidency. 


Adams was well qualified to be president, having served 
as Secretary of State under Monroe. Besides he had held 
many important public offices and everywhere had won 
great respect. His administration, however, was destined 
to be somewhat unfortunate. The Senate was opposed to 
lim, and he refused to organize his majority in the House. 
He permitted his enemies to continue in office greatly to his 
inconvenience. All this shows that he was not a shrewd 
politician. 

Adams had many sturdy personal qualities. He was an 
eloquent speaker, and a writer of ability—both prose and verse. 
He stood for the right, and was a staunch champion of his be- 
liefs. He had been a foreign minister who had served his country 
with ability and dignity, a Senator and a Cabinet Member. He 
was broad minded, almost to a fault. Perhaps no other man in the 
United States at this time—1825—possessed so many outstanding 
points which fitted him as an ideal President. 


es 255. The Erie Canal Completed. 

The Erie Canal was completed during the term of Adams. 
It extended from Troy, on the Hudson River, to Buffalo, on 
the eastern shore of Lake Erie. The canal greatly aided in 
the settlement of the West and also facilitated trade and in- 
ternal commerce. It helped to make New York our largest 
and most important city and port. Before the canal was 
built, it cost ten dollars to ship a barrel of flour from Buffalo . 
to Albany. After this, it cost only thirty cents. Products 
from the West were sent to eastern or eee markets by 
way of the canal. 

The canal extended three hundred pus -three miles, and was 
a great factor in the colonization of the West. It was completed 
in 1825 after eight years of strenuous labor. It is still a most 
important water highway, and the State of New York has in 
recent years made many costly improvements in addition to it. 


256. Congress Opposes Adams’ Policies. 


Adams’ administration was a period of strife between him 
and his enemies, who were in the main Jackson’s supporters. 


FIRST QUARTER 15 


They lost no opportunity of thwarting and humilating the Presi- 
dent, refusing to support him in measures that were eminently 
just ‘and right. The contest over the Creek and Cherokee Indians 
in Georgia is the outstanding example of this spirit of retaliation. 

The Creek and Cherokee Indians had been given lands for a 
reservation in Georgia but now the people of this state were 
trying to remove them in order to secure this rich acreage. Adams 


objected to this as an injustice and refused to sanction any such 


move, but Congress in spite of the injustice of the affair, refused 
to back up the President in his stand. This left an open fight 
between the Governor of Georgia and the President of the United 
States. 
‘Troup was then Governor of Georgia and when Congress 
failed to support Adams, the Governor was in a position whereby 
he could—and did successfully defy the authority of the National 
Government, with the result that the Indians were forced to 
leave, and the President stood powerless to assert his rights. This 
incident, while trivial in itself may have had far-reaching effects, 
in that a few years later, the leaders again in the Southern States 
__ asserted their power, with the Civil War as the outcome. 
, 257. The High Tariff of 1828—The ‘‘Tariff of Abominations.’’ 
President Adams, though a National Republican, held 
views much like the old Federalist party. Especially did he 
favor their policy of the protective tariff and internal im- 
provements. Toward the close of his administration, he 
signed a high tariff bill which tended to make him more un- 
popular. The manufacturers, particularly of New England, 
demanded very high protective rates, as this was their chief 
industry. Therefore a tariff providing unusually high duties was 


4 drawn up. It was not well planned and was consequently 


unjust. It laid high duties on everything without regard to 
the effect on the people’s welfare. For example, the tax on 
wool was fixed at seventy per cent, a rate so high that it 
made the cost of woolen cloth very high to the consumer. 
It was, of course, obvious that a tariff with so many weak- 
nesses would become very unpopular. In the South, where 
there was little manufacturing, the discontent was most pro- 
nounced. John C. Calhoun, their leader, even-went so far as 
to advise South Carolina to disregard the law. The followers 
of Jackson joined in the opposition to the tariff and helped to 
add to its disfavor. So unpopular did the measure become 
that it was called the “tariff-of abominations.” 


_ 258. The South Objects to a Protective Tariff. 
It was unavoidable that the new tariff law should cause 
trouble. Why Adams ever signed the bill is one of the mysteries 


16 FIRST QUARTER 


of his term of office. From the Northern standpoint it was good, 
for the North was the manufacturing part of the United States 
but it was exceedingly unjust to the South. This region was 
forced to buy the most of its manufactured articles, and to have 
the tariff raised from thirty to seventy per cent on woolens, and 
almost equally high on iron was sure to bring a vigorous protest 
from this region. In general, the tariff amounted to a raise of 
fully thirty-seven per cent. 

John C. Calhoun became spokesman for the South, and 
backed by the threats of five states, he advised South Garolina 
to refuse to obey the law as injurious to the welfare of the state. 
Here again came the notion of defiance of the National Govern- 
ment. With things in this state, the nation faced another presi- 
dential election. The South contended she had a right to buy — 
her goods when, where, and at what price she pleased and she _ 
certainly did not please to fill the Northern manufacturers pockets ~ 
at the expense of impoverishing herself. It is only fair to say © 
that later historians have backed the South in this protest. 


259. Jackson Nominated for President by Legislatures. 


Since 1800, the so-called congressional caucus had nomi- 
nated candidates for the presidency. The leaders of each 
party in Congress, met and chose their man. Such a method 
naturally took no regard for the people’s right. The new 
Jacksonian democracy set about overthrowing the caucus 
and succeeded. For a time state conventions or state legis- 
latures nominated the candidates, but very soon (1832) the 
National Convention came into existence and became very 
popular. 

Among Jackson’s followers were Martin Van Buren, his 
Secretary of State, and the only strong man in Jackson’s cabinet, 
Thomas H. Benton, and others who formed the new Democrat- 
Republican Party. The followers of Adams were called the Na- 
tional Republicans. They were the descendants of the old Fed- 
eralist Party, and are the Republican Party of today. The Demo- 
crat-Republican Party of Jackson’s day became later the Demo- 
crat Party of today. They represented the Republican Party as 
founded by Jefferson. Anti-Jackson men were Henry Clay and © 
Daniel Webster.“ James Russel Lowell, the well known poet, and 
others who made up the new National Republican Party. 

260. Result of the Election. 


The Tariff of Abominations, together with the persistent 
efforts of the Jackson men made the re- -election of Adams 
impossible. This-and the great popularity of Jackson in the 
West caused a landslide for the Democratic Republicans, or 


FIRST QUARTER deg 17 


the Democrats, as they came to be called. Jackson received 
one hundred seventy-eight electoral votes and Adams eighty- 
three. The popular vote, however, was more nearly ¢ evenly 
divided, Jackson holding the lead, however. 

The election of Andrew Jackson marked the beginning 
of a new democratic era. The West for the first time now 
began to show its influence. The struggle of the people in 
this section gave them confidence and from this time onward 
they came to have a larger share in national affairs. During 
Jackson’s administration, the nation showed great progress in 
almost every phase of development. In industrial and social 
development, great strides forward were made. Railroads, 
canals, and factories, in ever increasing numbers were built; 
and in education also much progress was made. In all this, 
however, Jackson showed himself as the dominant spirit and 
leader. It is a small wonder that his term is designated the 


es Andrew Jackson.” . 
poet ee 
NON-POLITICAL. 
261. Population Moving Westward. 
After the building of roads, canals,,and railways began, 


the population moved rapidly westward. The fertile lands — 
of the Mississippi Valley attracted thousands from the states © 
farther east. At first settlements sprang up on the banks of 


rivers, lakes, and canals, but as soon as railroads were con- 
structed, the interior some distance from the rivers began 
to be settled. 

With the exception of a very destructive fire in New 
York City (1835), Jackson’s presidency was a period of rapid 
. growth for the entire country, but especially for the West. 
New canals had been opened, lines of steamboats had been 
established on the principal western rivers and on all the 
Great Lakes, and the whistle of the locomotive was beginning 
to be heard beyond the Alleghanies. Arkansas and the 


. rapidly growing Territory of Michigan were admitted to the 


Union (1836-1837), making twenty-six states in all. 
Already the West, and especially the Northwest, was 
growing more rapidly than any other section. This was due 
to the improved means of travel, to the absence of slavery, 
the open prairie land, and the proximity of the large free 
population of the East. 
Cities also were beginning to develop, due to the in- 


crease of manufacturing. There were thirty-two cities with |. 


more than 8,000, and New York had more than 200,000.— 
Montgomery's Leading Facts of American History, Ginn and 
Company, Publishers. p. 234. 


18 FIRST QUARTER 


Iowa was settled largely by farmers from New England, 
New York and Ohio. There were two reasons why this was so— | 
the people from these states preferred a climate and living condi- 
. tions similar to those they had left, and they wanted to settle 
where all men were free. Farms sprang up over night. So much 
of the land was prairie that no clearing was necessary, hence less 
work was required to get out crops. Dubuque, Burlington and - 
Davenport had been established along the Mississippi River by 
1836, and were flourishing as trading towns. In 1846, lowa was 
admitted into the Union as a state. 

Owing to its further location, Wisconsin was not settled till 
later, and it was not till 1848, that it could claim the necessary 
300,000 which entitled it to seek admission as a state. Minnesota 
at this time had but 5,000 inhabitants and was not admitted for 
ten years. : 

But the movement westward was not confined to the North- 
west by any means. But they were blocked by the borders. of 
Texas which was at that time under Mexican control. By the 
provisions of the Louisiana boundary it had been delivered up to 
Spain in 1819, who later gave it up to Mexico. But when the 
Mexicans revolted from Spain, and Texas passed into her hands, 
she did not have settlers enough to fill up the lands. Therefore 
she opened them up to the settlers from the United States. One 
of the largest colonies was led by Moses Austin who settled near 
Bexar in 1820 with three hundred Americans. He founded the 
city which now bears his name and is the capital of the state. In 
twenty years, more than 20,000 Americans had settled in Texas, 
and it was not long till trouble started between the native Mexi-_ 
cans and the newcomers. This ended in the Mexican War, which 
will be discussed later. 

While trouble was brewing in Texas, it also was arising 
further west. Oregon had been claimed by the United States 
by virtue of Grey’s discovery in 1792 of the Columbia River, but 
no definite northern limit had been set to the country. The United 
States claimed the west coast up to Alaska, but Great Britain 
flatly refused to allow it. 

In 1811, John Jacob Astor’s fur traders had established a - 
fur trading post at the mouth of the Columbia River, and named 


it Astoria. During the ten years following 183N, many mission- | 


aries came to this country to establish missions for the Indians. 
In 1842, Dr. Elijah White led a band of one hundred twenty men 
into Oregon as settlers, and in the next year, Dr. Marcus Whit- 
man brought in a still larger settlement. This was but the begin- 
ning of a regular influx of immigrants. In 1843, at least eight 
hundred seventy-five settlers entered, while the following year 


FIRST QUARTER 19 


the total was at least 1,800. The following year there were 3,000, 
and now definite steps were taken to settle the boundary line for 
once and all. 

In the early history of our country, the states we now call 
California, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona were known as 
New. Spain. When after the war with Mexico, we gained posses- 
sion of California, it was not an entirely new region to us. Ever 
since the war of 1812, our ships had sailed around South America 
and visited California. But the overland route was also known, 
and Zebulon Pike had made the trip and wrote about it in his 
- book published in 1808. He also showed the possibility of using 
the Arkansas River, and then going across the desert to Santa Fe. 
The dangers of these cross country trips were great, but the 
profits to traders were so enormous, that there were always many 
willing to undertake the journey. 
~—— ‘The western movement has been divided by some writers 
into six distinct groups. The first were the fur_traders, who 
dealt largely with the Indians, and brought back skins and 
furs to Eastern markets. St. Louis was long the chief center of 
this trade. 

The second group were the miners. The discovery of gold . 
in California had much to do with their western movement. 


The third were the cattle men, who found the virgin grasses 
of the prairies rich grazing for their herds. These cowboys, as 
» they were called, gave a picturesqueness to the West from Mon- 
tana to Texas that it still retains in places. 

Farmers make up the fourth group; women the fifth and 
teachers and preachers the sixth. 


262. The West, an Agricultural Region. 


It was perhaps the third group of settlers, the cattlemen— 
who discovered the agricultural possibilities of the West. Here, 
mile after mile of virgin sod awaited the farmer’s efforts. But 
it was left to the fourth group, the farmers themselves, to fence 
the land, settle down, and become permanent home makers. The 
farmer differed from the cattleman in two ways—he nearly 
always brought his wife and children with him and he usually 
was a more settled, steady worker. With the coming of the 
women, settlements took on an air of stability, of order and thrift 
unknown in the earlier times. Nature had intended the great 
stretches of the Middle West as an agriculture country. Not 
even a tree sometimes for miles interferred with his work. In 
the main, the land was rich fine loam, land that today has placed 
the United States at the head of the agriculture world. 


20 FIRST QUARTER 


263. Canals, Pikes, Roads, and Steamboats. 


The colonization of the West called for better transportation 
facilities. Especially was this true of transportation for manu- 
factured articles from the East. In response to this natural de- 
mand, roads were opened both by public and private concerns. 


The opening of the Cumberland Road to the West was directly ~ 


responsible for the opening of the Erie Canal. For this road 
alarmed the New York merchants and led them to plan a road 
that would be a western avenue for their wares. The logical 
way seemed to be a canal connecting the Hudson River with the 


Great Lakes. This was begun in 1817 while Clinton was Gover- 


nor of New York. It was to connect directly with Lake Erie 
and would be three hundred sixty-three miles long. Some were 
doubtful of the undertaking and nicknamed it Clinton’s Folly 


or Clinton’s Big Ditch. But in 1825 it was finished and in No- 
vember, Governor Clinton and a party went from Albany to New — 


York City on a fleet of canal boats carrying with them kegs 


of water which they emptied into New York harbor in com- 


memoration of the great event. 
Other canals were built in Illinois and will be discussed later. 


In Pennsylvania the merchants faced the loss of trade to the © 
North so they persuaded their state to build a system of canals | 


and portages to connect the Ohio Valley and the Eastern coasts. 
This was an expensive undertaking but was more than justified 
in the trade carried over it between Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, and 
St. Louis. 


Along with the building of canals went the task of building ~ | 


turnpikes and roads. In many instances, the State bore the 
greater part of the expense. This was especially true with the 
National Road connecting Cumberland near the Potomac, with 
the Mississippi Valley. The need for this road had been seen 


even in the last part of the 18th Century, and in 1806 Congress . 


authorized the plan for a great National Highway which was to 


bind the East and the West. But it was not till 1811 that the 


first contracts were let. This road started from Cumberland on 


the Potomac, went to Washington, Pennsylvania, then west to 


Zanesville, Ohio, then straight across to Richmond, Indiana, then 
across Indiana to Terre Haute, then southwest to Vandalia, Illi- 
nois. The stretch from V andalia to St. Louis was never finished 
by the Government for the rapid increase in railroads made it 
unnecessary. 


The first freight and passenger railroad in the United States. 
extended westward from Baltimore thirteen miles and formed - 


a part of what is now known as the Baltimore & Ohio rail- 
road, This railroad was begun by Charles Carroll, of Carroll- 


. pie Ts ee al 


FIRST QUARTER 21 


ton. Striking his spade into the ground he said, “I consider 
this among the most important acts of my life, second only 
to that of signing the Declaration of Independence, if second 


= tortiats, 


At first the cars were drawn by horses. In 1830 Peter 
Cooper built the first locomotive in our country. This loco- 
motive was put on the new railroad. 

About the year 1850 railroads were built westward. New 
lands for the emigrant were now opened and the railroad did 
more for the development of the West than anything else, for 


wherever railroads went, towns and cities sprung up and 


products could be taken from one place to another. It 
formed a unity of our country and made it easier to govern. 
We now have more than two hundred and twenty-five 
thousand miles in the United States. We have more than 
any other country. . 
Cornelius Vanderbilt in 1869 consolidated about sixteen 
different fragments of railroads into one great road called 
the New York Central. To these he joined the Lake Shore 
and Michigan Southern. Thus it might be said that the 


~ New York Central embraces the entire route from New York 


.- to Chicago. This Vanderbilt system now has a total of some 


ee 


twenty thousand miles. 
In New York, there was a chain of little roads reaching 
across the state. The first was the “Mohawk and Hudson,” 


‘extending from Albany to Schenectady, where it connected 


with the Erie Canal. This was opened in 1831, but it was not 
until twelve years later that they extended it all the way to 
Buffalo. Finally they were gathered together into the power- 
ful “New York Central,” and soon after the close of the war 
Commodore Vanderbilt merged all these with his own the 
“New York and Harlem,” into the “New York Central” and 
“Hudson River Railroad.” This system rapidly spread and 
absorbed and consolidated with other railroads until it ex- 
tended to every part of New York. 

Similarly in Pennsylvania, there were many short lines 
extending from the anthracite coal region to the coast. These 
were bought up by the “Pennsylvania Railroad,” which was 
the first road west through the Alleghanies to Pittsburgh. 
The “Pennsylvania” thus gained a monopoly of all the trans- 
portation routes from Pittsburgh to the coast. Its lines are 
carrying one-fourth of the freight of the United States, largely 
coke, coal and iron and steel manufactures. This road and 
the “New. York Central” illustrate well one of the most im- 
portant chapters in the history of railroading—how nearly 


22 FIRST QUARTER 


all the small lines of the United States have been gathered . 
together by capitalists into a few powerful systems. 

The first road through Northern Illinois was the “Galena — 
and Chicago Union,” which was the cornerstone of the “Chi- 
cago and N orthwestern.” It was not untjl 1847 that the first 
ten miles from the Chicago River to the Des Plaines were 
started. The first locomotive was second hand as were also 
the rails, which were of the strap variety—thin strips of 
iron on wooden rails. 

This road was the first to reach the Mississippi (1855). 

As has been said before, the steamboat period of travel began 
about 1810, reached its greatest popularity about 1850, and de- 
clined after 1870. It was not till 1807 that the first steamboat 
was launched on the Hudson by its inventor, Robert Fulton. He 
called it the Clermont, and in it made the distance from New 
York to Albany, a journey of one hundred fifty miles in thirty- 
two hours, and the return trip in thirty hours. In 1811, there 
was a steamboat on the Ohio, and in 1812, there was regular 
service between Pittsburgh and New Orleans. | 


264. Social Progress. 

Social conditions were much different in the West than in 
the South or East. Most of the pioneers were poor, and brought 
with them into the wilderness all their worldly goods. Because . 
of the cheapness of the land, every man could soon be a home 
owner, and if his log hut was poor, and without any but the 
necessary furnishings, it at least was as good as his neighbors. 
The huge fireplace built of rough stones served as means of heat 
for cooking. A loom and spinning wheel were part of the equip- , 
ment of every pioneer home. 

Yet it was not a dull existence; log rolling, husking bees, and 
quiltings furnished quite as much social intercourse as there was 
time for in those days. The youth of the pioneers married while 
still in their teens and usually raised large families. But in the 
winter life in the wilderness often meant days of isolation. The 
winters were long and cold. Sometimes the nearest neighbor was 
ten miles away, and the nearest doctor twenty. 

Compared to the cultured East and the aristocratic South, 
the West had few refinements of: life, yet churches and schools 
were not neglected. Yet it was not till the Industrial Revolution 
that the manner of life of the Western settlers changed to any 
radical extent. 

With the. invention of the steam engine and labor saving 
machinery, the change was great and far-reaching. When man 
no longer was forced by necessity to spend the greater part of 
his time and strength supplying his physical needs, he had more 
time to give to social and intellectual pursuits. » 


r 


FIRST QUARTER 23 


265. Growth in Population. 


Between the years 1830 and 1840 there was a growth of 
4,000,000 in population in the United States. By far the greater 
part of this increase was in the West and the new states of the 
Southwest. The population of the older Southern states changed 
but little during this period. But in the new states of the South 


~and in the North the growth had been rapid. But the growth 


of the West had been enormous. The increase of population in 
Ohio had been sixty per cent. The population of Indiana had 
doubled, while that of Michigan reached the astounding figures 
of five hundred seventy per cent. Indiana, Illinois, and Ohio were 
at this time receiving a great flood of settlers from North Caro- 
lina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, and Virginia. These 


» settlers were seeking new homes in states free of slavery. 


266. Education—Schools—Colleges. 
One of the first things the settlers in America had done was 


. to establish free schools. The Boston Latin School was founded 


1635, and-in 1636, the Massachusetts Legislature had voted £400 
to establish a school at Cambridge, near “Boston. This was later 
called Harvard. In 1693, Virginia established Williams and 


‘Mary College, and in 1701, Connecticut founded Yale. In 1787 


when Congress passed the Ordinance Government for the North- 
was Territory, four very important clauses were incorporated 
into it. One of them concerned education, and encouraged 
“schools and the means of education.” 

_ From the beginning, the settlers set aside lands to be used to 
furnish money for schools. The teacher was paid partly in 
money, and boarded among the patrons in the district. Of course, 
teachers of the best training were not available—and the three R’s 
were the chief subjects taught. The older students could attend 
only during. those months they could not work in the fields— 


usually three months at the most. The school houses were built 


of logs, with oil paper for windows. The floors were “puncheons”’ 
that is logs smoothed off and laid side by side. There were no 
desks, and only rude benches made from hewn logs. Heat was 
furnished by the fire place, as in the home. In colonial times, the 


chief interest in the establishment of schools, was for training 


the youth in religious matters. The college was almost wholly 
to train clergymen. But by 1800, schools had begun to take on a 
secular tone, and to the old curriculum, had been added geog- 
raphy, history, and arithmetic. Perhaps the one thing that freed 
the schools from religious authority more than any other, was 
the use of public funds to support them. Naturally Protestants 
objected to paying taxes to support a school supervised by Cath- 


24 FIRST QUARTER 


olics, and vice versa. There seemed but one solution, and that 
was to give over to the schools wholly to secular subjects, and 
leave religious instruction to the church and home. The need of 
teaching foreigners the English language, American history, and 
local geography, also had much to do with the change in 
curriculum. 

It took strenuous efforts to convince people that education 
is a public necessity, and therefore must be supported by public 
funds. But in the end the idea carried and by 1850, schools sup- 
ported by public money, were common throughout the West and 
the Middle West. Among those who fought and won the fight ' 
for publicly supported schools in the East are Horace Mann, 
Henry Barnard, DeWitt Clinton, Emma Willard and Mary Lyon. 

The development of education in the Northwest was much 
slower than might have been expected. While generous grants 
of land had been made for school purposes, the land had been 
poorly managed, sold at a pittance, or sometimes not used for 
educational purposes at all. Hence, it was necessary to make the 
fight for tax supported schools just as it had been in the East. 
But in the West there was not as high a regard for the educated 
man as there was in the East. Brawn counted for more than — 
brains in the hard lives of the western settlers. For thirty years 
after the state constitution of Indiana was adopted in 1816, there 
was little done in an educational way, although the Constitution 
provided for a well organized system of public free schools ancy 
colleges. 

The constitution drawn up for Illinois in 1818 there was NO 
mention made of education and it was not until about 1850 that. 
an educational reform began which lifted the schools from:-their . 
wretched condition. No great progress was made. in the grade 
school: of Missouri till after the Civil War. 

About 1820, there arose a need for a secondary school that 
was free and that offered a more practical course than that offered 
by the Academies. at 

In 1821, in Boston there was opened a school of this nature. - 
It was supported by the school funds, was free, and aimed to 
prepare a student for life rather than for college. In: 18253 ane 
similar institution was opened in New York, and there was laid ~ 
the beginning of our system.of United States high schools. But 
the growth of the public high school was very slow. As late as 
1860, there were perhaps less than one hundred in all the United 
States. Most people f-lt if a person wanted schooling above the 
grades he should pay frr it himself, and not expect the public to do 
it for him. Therefor, the private academy was still the usual 
type of secondary school. 


FIRST QUARTER 25 


As in the lower schools, the first colleges founded were for 
the purpose of training ministers. But soon others were attracted 
by a desire for wider learning. 

Leaders in education were also now advocating state sup- 
ported colleges. This was supported by the provisions of the 
Northwest Territory Land Ordinance, which provided for a state 
university for each state formed from that territory. The South 
was the leader in opening State Universities. In 1795, North 
Carolina opened hers; Georgia followed suit in 1801, South 
Carolina in 1804. In the West, Ohio led the way in 1802, and 
Indiana followed suit in 1824. The University of Michigan began 
on a small scale in 1841. 

Education as discussed really applied to boys. Girls with 
few exceptions gained more than the rudiments of reading and 
writing. They were not admitted to the grammar school, acad- 
- emies or high schools; so to provide for the few who were de- 
' manding something more, various young ladies’ seminaries were 
opened. 

By 1860, only five colleges admitted women, and even then 
not to all courses. Public high schools were still shut against 
them. Today in our high schools and colleges, young women 
average fully fifty per cent of the student body. 


267. Literary Progress, 


In 1639, a printing press was set up at Cambridge, Massa- 
chusetts and in 1640, published the first book printed in the 
United States. It was the “Bay Psalm Book.” In 1704, the 
first newspaper was published—The Boston News Letter, a 
minature paper of four small sheets. But it was the first regular 
newspaper in America. They were all weeklies. The first daily 
was established in Philadelphia in 1784, and was called the 
American Daily Advertiser. | 

These papers contained little news, and were bitterly opposed 
by the Royal Governors. They feared their influence and during 
the Revolutionary War, the power the papers wielded fully justi- 
' fied the old tyrants’ forebodings. | 
! Magazines did not have the early development of the news- 

paper, but before the end of the 18th Century there were about 
forty so-called magazines printing poetr y literature, org on 
music, and political matters. 

In 1815, the North American Review was seratlished: In 
1827, appeared the first woman’s magazine. 

Among the early novelists in the United States was Charles 
Brockden “Brown (1771-1810), but he never became popular be- 
cause he failed to see that life in America was as thrilling and 
romantic as that in England. But during the decade between 1830- 


26 FIRST QUARTER 


1840, a decided new tone came into American literature. Ameri- 
can authors began to deal with American people in American 
settings and so well did they do it that they won hosts of readers 
not only in the United States; but in Europe as well. Washington 
Irving made immortal the Catskill Mountains and Sleepy Hollow. ~ 
James Fenimore Cooper retold stories of the Revolution in “The 
Spy,” while New England folk and their quaint customs were 
handed down to posterity in the stories of Nathaniel Hawthorne. 
Among the poets were Longfellow, Lowell, and Poe, while 
Harriet Beecher Stowe utilized the slavery issue in Uncle Tom’s 
Cabin. John Greenleaf Whittier was another writer who esposed ~ 
the cause of freedom for the slave. William Cullen Bryant wrote 
Thanatopsis, a poem ‘which attracted wide attention, but it was 
after.old classical models. In the South, Paul Hamilton Hayne 
and Sidney Lanier wrote poetry that ranks them high among 
American writers. | 


268. Visit of General Lafayette. 


During Monroe’s administration, Marquis de Lafayette was 
invited by Congress to visit America. After Lafayette had helped - 
us in the Revolution, he had returned to France, and helped in 
the Revolution there. For so doing, he had been kept a prisoner . 
in Austria for five years. But after his release, he returned to 
France, and at the invitation of Congress came to visit America 
in 1824. Everywhere he was given a welcome that a king might 
have envied. He visited the chief cities in our country and laid 
the cornerstone of the Bunker Hill Monument. Our nation had 
a population of 3,000,000 when Lafayette had first seen it, now 
it numbered 10,000,000, while in extent it stretched to the Rocky 
Mountains. Congress, in recognition of Lafayette’s aid to the 
United States gave him $200,000 and a fine tract of land. When 
he returned to France, he was taken in a new man-of-war called 
the Brandywine, in honor of Lafayette, who had been wounded 
in the Battle of Brandywine while fighting in our war. i 


269. Death of Adams and Jefferson, July 4,1826. © —# 


While the nation was celebrating the fiftieth year of inde- ~ 
pendence July 4, 1826, two noted men died. They were Thomas | 
Jefferson and John Adams. Adams had always celebrated July 4, 
and just before he passed away he mentioned the day, and said 
softly “Thomas Jefferson still survives,” but he was wrong, for 
a few minutes before, Jefferson had passed away at his beautiful 
home at Monticello in Virginia, saying with his last conscious 
breath, “This is the 4th day of July.” 


a 


FIRST QUARTER 27 


JACKSONIAN DEMOCRACY. 


270. Jackson, a Man of the People. 

In personal appearance, Jackson was a rather striking 
figure, tall, gaunt, and somewhat uncouth. Some claim that 
his manners and deportment were those of the backwoods- 
man. He was honest, generous, and sympathetic. Above 
all he was courageous and a leader of men, especially in the 
army. His greatest faults were his exhibitions of temper and 
headstrong actions. We may say that he was a bitter enemy 
to those whom he disliked, but a close friend to those whom 
he loved. 

The election of Andrew Jackson to the presidency marked 
the close of the second great epoch in the history of the 
United States. 

He was in some respects a typical man of the people. 
Born in the Carolina backwoods, he passed his boyhood amid 
the alarms and hostile encounters of the Revolutionary War. 
He then made his way over the mountains to the newer 
Carolina, which rapidly developed and was admitted to the 
Union as the State of Tennessee. Picking up a few scraps 
of legal knowledge, he became a lawyer; but it was as a 
military man that he made his mark. Without fear, with 
boundless energy, and with a faith in his own judgment and 
good intentions scarcely ever surpassed, Jackson proved him- 
self to be a born leader of men in times of stress. In the 
Indian wars of that time andin the War of 1812, he led his 
men to victory. In every way, Jackson was a fitting repre- 
sentative of frontier life, which now for the first time took a 
leading position in national affairs in combination with east- 
ern political leaders who saw no other way to the possession 
of power.—Channing’s History, Copyright ao by the Mac- 
millan Company, New York, pp. 377, 378. 


271. The ‘‘Spoils System.’’ 

When Jackson became president, he immediately began 
te turn out of office those who did not agree with him in 
politics and to fill the offices thus vacated with his friends. 
He was the first president to undertake such a thing. During 
nine months of his term, he removed more than a thousand 


officials, while all the other presidents together had not re- 


moved more than one hundred sixty. Jackson’s proceedings 


‘ caused great excitement among the people. 


{ 272. The Webster-Hayne Debate. 
Hayne, senator from South Carolina, declared whenever 
the national government passed a law which was contrary to 


28 FIRST QUARTER 


the Constitution of a state, that state had a right to step in 
and prevent the law from going into effect. He declared 
nullification was constitutional. Hayne spoke for two days, 
and made a powerful speech. » 


Daniel Webster, senator from Massachusetts, replied - 


to Hayne’s speech. He declared that the Constitution was the 
people’s Constitution, the people’s government, made by the 
people and answerable to the people. He declared no state 
could declare a law unconstitutional and that the Supreme 


Court alone could do that. He said that nullification would > 
break up the Union and that, if any state should leave the 
Union, it was the duty of the National Government to com- | 


pel it to come back. He closed his speech with the well 
known words: “Liberty and union, now and forever, one 
and inseparable.” From that time on he was known as the 
greatest orator of America. Webster’s speech strengthened 
the Union, but of course the trouble was not settled until the 
Civil War, when Webster’s views were adopted. . 


273. The Threat of Nullification. 


The people of the South felt themselves wronged about the 


tariff. They thought they ought to have the privilege of buying 
goods wherever they could get them the cheapest, and South 


Carolina declared that after February 1, 1833, she would pay no 


tariff, and that she would leave the Union if she was forced to do 


so. South Carolina declared the tariff null and void, and said she ~ 


believed in “State Rights,” that meant that any State had the right 
to disobey a law if the state thought the law was injurious to its 


welfare. It was indeed a serious situation. John C. Calhoun was, - 


a strong supporter of “Nullification.” 


274, Jackson Opposed to Nullification. 


Jackson sent a naval force under Farragut to Charleston 
harbor and gave South Carolina to understand that he intended 
to have the federal laws obeyed. Then Henry Clay, the peace- 


maker, settled the trouble by compromise, by securing the passage 
of a bill, which provided for the gradual reduction of*the tariff 


-until 1842, when it would be as low as it was in 1816. © 


Jackson saw the injustice of the tariff law as well as any 
Southerner, but with Webster, he saw the great need of preserving  _ 


the Union. He resolved therefore that as long as it was a law, 


that he would enforce it at all costs. He saw clearly that the 
right of any one state to defy the National Government could lead 


but to the final destruction of the Federal Government. 


Jackson boldly announced his stand on the question at a- 


banquet given on Jefferson’s birthday April 13, 1830. When it 


FIRST QUARTER 29 


came time for Jackson to speak, he boldly gave as his toast : “Our 
Federal Union; it must be preserved.” 

This frank utterance of his stand staggered the sympathizers 
of nullification. About this same time he told a man from South 
Carolina, that if any blood was shed there in opposition to the 
laws of the United States he would hang the guilty ones upon the 
first tree he came to. 

~ Such decisive utterances did much for the Union at this time. 
It must be remembered that the Union spirit was a thing of 
growth and was by no means as strong in Jackson’s time as it 
is today. 


. 275. Jackson Vetoes the Recharter of the United States Banks. 


President Jackson disliked the United States bank; he 
had doubts as to whether the government had power to 
establish such a bank. The charter of the United States bank 
was to expire in 1836. Jackson was determined to destroy 
this bank, for its managers were his political enemies. He 
declared the bank was a monopoly, and that its stock was 
owned by a few hundred wealthy men, and a number of for- 
eign.capitalists abroad. When the friends of the bank wanted 
a new charter and the bill went to Jackson, he vetoed it. Con- 
gress was not able to pass the bill over his veto, and the bank 
ceased to exist. Jackson ordered the government money to 
be taken out and put in State banks, nicknamed “pet banks,” 

_ for these State banks were managed by his political friends. 


276. Reelected in 1832. 


In the election of 1832, the United States Bank was the chief 
political issue, but the personality of Jackson himself was in 
reality the main issue. He*was the Democratic candidate, Henry 
Clay, the Republican, and William Wirt of Virginia the candidate 
for the Anti-Masonic Party. Jackson received two hundred nine- 
teen votes to forty-nine for Clay, thus giving him an overwhelm- 
ing majority. ° | 


277. Compromise Tariff of 1833, 


In 1832, a law was passed abolishing the tariff of abomina- 
tions, and caused the schedule to return to much the same as it 
was in 1824. It was to become effective March 3, 1833. But the 

“ passage of this law but further incensed the South. They saw 
the Government ‘had no idea of abolishing the tariff entirely, so 
led on by Calhoun, a convention met at Columbia, South Carolina, 
and declared the tariffs of 1828 and 1832 null and void within 
the state. In the event that the Government tried to enforce the 
law, the State would withdraw from the Union. 


30 FIRST QUARTER 


When the President saw that South Carolina meant to use 
force to resist the laws, he sent orders.to the collector of customs 
at Charleston, South Carolina, to collect all duties, by force if 
necessary. 

In January, 1833, Congress passed a law giving him the use 
of the Army and Navy to protect the collectors of revenue. This 
was known as the Force Bill and became a law March 1, 1833. 

South Carolina also made ready for the conflict. Hayne was 
elected Governor and the state was made ready for war.. At this — 
point, Henry Clay stepped in and succeeded in having the tariffs 
reduced, such reduction to take place March 2, one day before 
the tariff law of 1832 was to go into effect. This compromise - 
seemed satisfactory to both sides. The South had gained a re- 
duction in tariffs and Jackson had “executed the laws of the 
United States.” It at least had kept the rights of nullification 
from being recognized. 


FINANCIAL MATTERS. 
278. Surplus Removed from the United States Banks. 


Jackson was from the beginning unfriendly to the United 
States Bank. In the campaign of 1832, it threw its influence to 
his opponent, and after his re-election he drew out the surplus 
and distributed it among various small banks, and ordered that 
no further deposits should be made in the United States Bank. 


279. The ‘‘Pet’’ Banks or State Banks. 


The ‘“Pet” Banks or state banks were the ones selected by 
Jackson as the ones where the funds from the United States Bank 
should be deposited. Jackson removed nearly $10,000,000 from. 
the United States Bank, and this, together with about $30,000,000 
more was deposited in a number of small banks, owned by his 
friends. In 1836, the charter of the United States Bank came 
to an end, and it was later reorganized as a State Bank under the 
laws of Pennsylvania. 


280. United States out of Debt. 


At the time that the question of nullification was settled in 
South Carolina in 1833, we were a very prosperous nation and . 
did not owe one cent of public debt. - 


281. Government’s Surplus Deposited with the Several States. 


Altogether about $40,000,000 were deposited in the various 
state banks, when Jackson decided to end the United States Bank. 
It was put in banks owned or managed by Jackson’s friends and 
proved very profitable to them because they could lend it in small — 
sums for enormous rates of interest. 


< 


w 


FIRST QUARTER ; 31 


282. The ‘‘Specie Circular.’’ 


Jackson’s policy led to bad banking. Many.banks started 
up with scarcely no capital; the ease with which people could 
borrow money led to great speculation; in fact, almost every- 
body was borrowing paper money from the banks and specu- 
lating. Great sims of irredeemable paper money were issued. 
Jackson, seing how the country was flooded with “cheap paper 
money,” issued his “specie circular,” which demanded that 
public lands should be paid for in gold and silver. The gold 
and silver was soon gathered into the United States Treasury, 


and in order to get the gold and silver with which to buy 


lands, the speculators called upon the banks to redeem their 
notes. Many banks were unable to do so, and the money 
became scarce, merchants failed, the price of cotton fell, and 
a panic swept over the country. It was one of the most 


painful crisis in our financial history. _The majority of the 


people were not Satisfied that the government should keep 
its money in State banks, but just what should be done with 
it was a question to be settled. President Van Buren pro- 
posed the Sub-Treasury system, which called for the estab- 
lishment of a Treasury at Washington, with subordinate 
Treasuries in other large cities. This plan became a law in 
1840. It was repealed in 1841, again adopted in 1846, and is 
still in force. The government built the chief Treasury at 
Washington, and the smaller Treasuries at New York, Boston, 
Charleston, Chicago, St. Louis, Philadelphia, Cincinnati, San 
Francisco, New Orleans, and Baltimore. All the money that 
was received by the government collectors was to be paid over 
to the officers of these Treasuries, who were to pay it out 
whenever ordered to do so by the Treasury Department at 
Washington. This excellent system is still in force. 


283. Slavery Petitions. 


The Missouri Compromise was supposed to have settled 
the issue of slavery. Later anti-slavery agitators were 
aroused. Anti-slavery newspapers grew more numerous and 
aggressive. Now anti-slavery societies were formed. The 
anti-slavery people flooded the South with newspapers, pam- 
phlets, pictures, and handbills intending to stir up sympathy 
for the slaves. The southern people protested against this, 
saying it would cause slaves to run away or rise in insur- 
rection. The North continued their work and the South 
seeing that they could not stop this by legal means, tried 
illegal means to do so. In many places mobs broke up the 
anti-slavery meetings, and destroyed anti-slavery newspapers 


32 | FIRST QUARTER 


and printing presses. At Alton, Illinois, a newspaper office ~ 
owned by Elijah Lovejoy was four times attacked, and its © 


owner killed by a mob while he was protecting it. The Pro- 
slavery people were not content yet and tried to get Congress 
to pass a bill excluding anti-slavery documents from the 
mails. The bill to close the mail to anti-slavery documents 
failed.—McMaster's Brief History, pp. 293, 294, 295. 

One of the most bitter opponents of slavery in the North was 
William Lloyd Garrison. He was most outspoken in his condem- 
nation of the Constitution of the United States and said he would 


gladly help to destroy the Union rather than to remain a citizen 
of a slave mation. He held meetings and wrote innumerable- 


articles and pamphlets against slavery. He also had many fol- 
lowers, who also wrote. These writings were sent all over the 
United States both. north and south, while they circulated numer- 
ous petitions aimed at abolishing slavery wherever it existed in 
the United States. 

Not all Northern people were in sympathy with Garrison 
and his followers. While they did not believe in slavery, they 
were not willing to create a turmoil that interefered with the 
routine of business in general. Hence, whenever the abolitionists, 
as Garrisons followers were called, held a meeting, they were apt 
to be set upon and mobbed. However, they did not give up the 
fight. Their circulars and pamphlets clogged the mails and their 
petitions almost swamped, Congress. Clearly something had to 
be done. 


In Congress, the Southern members succeeded in having a 


law passed in 1836 which said no more slavery petitions might 


be read. in its meetings. This was known as “the gag resolution” 


and against it John Quincy Adams fought with all his strength. 
He declared it unconstitutional to refuse the right of petition to 


any one on any question and so bitter was his opposition that in 


1844 it was discontinued. 7 
284. Presidential Election in 1836. | 

Due largely to Jackson’s influence, at the close of his second 
term as President, Martin Van Buren, a close friend of Jackson, 
was elected President. | 

In 1831; Jackson’s opponents had formed a new party known 
as the National Republicans, of which Henry Clay was the 
leader. They were the outgrowth of the old Whig Party/ but be- 
cause of the enemies Clay had incurred, failed in the election. 

Van Buren was elected in 1836, by the Democrats. No 
candidate received a majority of the votes for Vice-President; 
therefore the Senate chose Richard M. Johnson, of Kentucky. 
Van Buren served from 1837-1841. 


FIRST QUARTER 33 


285. Democratic Republicans and National Republicans. 


During Monroe’s administration, party lines were almost 
lost, but during Adams’ tenure of office, they were renewed. Clay 
and Adams’ followers called themselves National Republicans, 
while Jackson’s followers were called Democratic Republicans, 
and later as merely Democrats. The National Republicans were 
the outgrowth of the old Federalist Party while the Democratic 
Republicans represent Jefferson’s followers. 


286. Van Buren Carries Out Jackson’s Policies. 


Van Buren had been a most ardent supporter of Jackson, 
and when in 1837 he became president, he began his term pledged 
to carry out Jackson’s policies. His administration can therefore 
be considered little more than a continuation of the former. When 
Van Buren began his term, the country was facing a grave finan- 
cial crisis and in 1837 the crash came. 


287. _ The Panic of 1837, 

The panic of 1837 \ was the worst the country has ever known. 
paper money, and Jackson’s financial schemes. ~ Every day banks 
and business houses were forced to close, and the prices of neces- 
sities became quite out of reach of the poor. Flour rose from 
four dollars to eleven dollars per barrel, and corn from fifty-three 
cents per bushel t6"Ohe dollar fifteen. Bread riots broke otit in 
the East, and the President calted a special session of Congress. 
But the leaders could do nothing. 

Nearly all trade ended when banks closed and mills ceased 
operations. Thousands of people were without employment while 
the prices of even the necessities of life were exhoribtant. In two 
months the total business failures in New York City reached 
$100,000,000. 

One unfortunate phase of the situation was that huge sums 
had been borrowed by the different states from Europe, and now 
they were unable to meet either principal or interest. This debt 
amounted to about $200,000,000. Mississippi repudiated her 
whole debt, while seven states—Illinois, Indiana, Arkansas, 
Louisana, Maryland, Michigan, Pennsylvania and Florida, which 
was yet a territory, suspended payment of all interest. This 
money had been borrowed for the purpose of building roads, 
canals and railroads. 


288. The Independent Treasury. 


The panic of 1837 had been caused largely by, the failure 
of the government’s financial schemes. When the money lent to 
the Pet Banks during Jackson’s administration was called in, 


34 FIRST QUARTER 


many were unable to meet the demand. /But once that confidence ’ 
returned, business was resumed as usual and the Government set 
about taking steps to regulate banking. New York passed a law 
requiring all her banks to have security for all notes issued. On 
July 4, 1840, Congress passed the Independent Treasury Act. 
It provided that vaults should be provided for United States 
funds so that the Government would be independent of all banks. 
It required all the officers of the Government should give bond, 
and that after June 30, 1843, all payments by or to the United 
States should be in gold or silver. The measure was soon re- 
pealed, later again became a law, and is in force today. 


A NEW PARTY. 


289. Democrats and Whigs. 


In 1834, when opposition to Jackson was organized into a 
party the National Republican Party was merged into the Whig 
Party. The Whigs nominated William Henry Harrison, and the 
Democrats nominated Van Buren, who was elected by a vote of 
one hundred seventy to seventy-three. But in the popular vote 
his majority was but 25,000. In 1840, the Whigs again nominated 
Harrison and the Democrats Van Buren. ; 


290. Slavery Advocates Desire to Annex Texas. 


The present state of Texas was at one time included in the 
Republic of Mexico. Mexico had once been a province of Spain, 
but in 1821, she won her independence. 

Soon after Mexico became independent she gave a large 
grant of land to Stephen Austin, who with a number of im- 
migrants from the Southern states, began to make settle- 
ments on it. Some of these people owned slaves and took 
them with them. In 1829, Mexico abolished slavery, but 
Austin’s settlers refused to give up their slaves. Mexico, there- 
fore, refused to allow American immigration to Texas. Some 
years earlier we had settled the boundary question. The line 
between Louisiana and Mexico was fixed as the Sabine River 
(1819). 
President John ©. Adams in 182%, offered Mexico 
$1,000,000 for Texas, but Mexico refused to sell. Later, in 
1829, Jackson offered Mexico $5,000,000, but Mexico again re- 
fused to sell. 

By the year 1830 there were in Texas 30,000 colonists, 
mostly Americans, scattered along the coast between the 
Sabine and Neuces rivers. This was the strip from which 
under the leadership of Houston, Bowie, and Crockett, they 
succeeded in repelling the Mexicans. They claimed all west 


FIRST QUARTER 35 


to the Rio Grande and its sources, and north to parallel 42°, 
or at least five times as much as they had conquered. The 
Mexicans held that the land between the Neuces and Rio 
Grande had never been part of Texas; but later President 
Polk insisted that when we annexed Texas we annexed all 
that Texas claimed. 

The Mexican government and the people of Texas could 
not get along with each other; finally Texas being dissatisfied 
with the oppressive Mexican government, revolted in 1833, 
and in 1835 the Texans rose in a mass and drove out the 
Mexicans after hard fighting and proclaimed a republic in 
1836, and modeled it after United States. In 1837, United 
States, England, France, and Belgium acknowledged her in- 
dependence. Soon after gaining her independence, Texas 
asked to be admitted into our Union, for many of her in- 
habitants thought the Texas government inefficient, and 
besides many were Americans and it was natural that they 
should want to be annexed to the United States. The constitu- 
tion of Texas allowed slavery, and of course this admission 
would bring about an angry discussion between the North 
~ and South. 

The fertile lands of Texas soon attracted many people, 
and it is said that within seven years twelve thousand Ameri- 
cans were living in Texas. 

In the campaign of 1844, the annexation of Texas became an 
issue. The Democrats nominated Polk, and declared that we 
should annex Texas. They believed that we had bought Texas 
from Napoleon in 1803, and so used the term “reannexation of 
Texas.” Henry Clay, who was nominated by the Whigs, would 
probably have been elected had he kept still about Texas; but he 
also professed to believe in the annexation and lost many North- 
erm votes. When the election was over, it was found that Polk 
was elected. | 

In the election of Pope, the Expansionists won a victory. 
The question of annexing Texas now came before the Con- 
gress. 

Two questions now arose. The North at once saw that - 
if Texas was annexed that it would add a large Territory to 
slavery. The South wanted it annexed for they wanted as 
much slavé area as was possible to get. The United States 
was well aware that Mexico would never willingly part with 
it, and that its annexation would bring on a war with Mexico. 
President Tyler wanted it annexed and pushed it with all his 
might. The question now came up again just a few days 
before the expiration of Tyler’s term. It was left to a vote. 
A majority of each house must vote for it before it could be 


36 FIRST QUARTER 


annexed. The vote carried and Texas was annexed March 1, 
1845. It was the last slave state to enter the Union. 


Fe etl \ 


291. Development of the West. i aes 


On account of the struggle between the free states and 

the slave states for power in Congress, both sides tried to se- 
cure all the new territories for their cause. 
) The Oregon Territory included the country west of the 
Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Ocean, and between parallel 
42° and 54° 40’ north. The United States laid claims to 
Oregon territory on the ground that Captain Gray had dis- 
covered the Columbia River 1792; that Lewis and Clark had 
explored it 1805-1806; that Astor had begun settlements there 
as early as 1811; that Spain had ceded it to the United States 
esa) 

England based her claims on Drake’s exploration, the 
third voyage of Captain Cook, and the trading posts that the. 
Hudson Bay Company had established: 

The two countries agreed in 1818 to hold it jointly for 
ten years. When the ten years had expired, their agreement 
was renewed; this time it was to continue until either country 
would give a year’s notice before termination. 

A stream of emigrants began to pour into Oregon, and 
it soon became evident that the people could not live in a 


country under two governments. At last a dispute arose, and ~ 


notice was served on Great Britain that joint occupancy must 
end within a year. Finally the controversy was settled by the 
treaty of 1846. The United States took all the territory north 
of California, including the Columbia River, to parallel 49° 
north. The English took all north to Alaska. 

The following states have been carved out of the territory - 
which we obtained: Oregon, Washington, and Idaho and 
parts of Wyoming and Montana. | 

In this way war was wisely averted. 


292. The Log Cabin Campaign of 1840, 


The campaign of 1840 was destined to be a very spec- 
tacular one. Van Buren, of course, was renominated by the 
Democrats. On the Whig side, Clay was set aside and General 
William Henry Harrison was nominated. Although Harrison 
was better fitted to be a military than a civil leader, yet he 
swept his way into office with little difficulty. He was the 
popular hero of the Battle of Tippecanoe, and his followers 
readily adopted the slogan of “Tippecanoe and Tyler too.” 
A democratic leader had referred to the Whig candidate as 
one who would be satisfied with a log cabin, coons, and a 


nn 


FIRST QUARTER 37 


barrel of cider. At once monster mass meetings and parades 
were held, in which were carried log cabins with coon skins 
and cider. Popular campaign songs, speeches, and torchlight 
processions were frequently held. As a result, Harrison re- 


- ceived two hundred sixty- -four electoral votes and Van Buren 


thirty. 


293. The Doctrines of the Whig Party. 

Then, as now, the political parties bid for the votes of the 
people. The National Republicans, among whom were Webster 
and Clay, took the name of Whigs. This name was borrowed 
from England, where it stood for opposition to the rulers, 

The Whigs in the campaign of 1840 ran on the following 


platform: 


1. Internal improvements, such as ae roads, etc., should 
be carried on by the Government. 

2. To re-establish a United States oa 

3. To protect the manufacturers of the United States by a 


_ high tariff. 


4. Most of the Whigs wished to restrict the extension of 
slave territory. 

The Democrats declared each state should stand the expense 
of its own improvements, that there should be an independent 
treasury instead of a United States bank, that there should be 
ree trade—no tariff, and that each individual state should settle 


the slavery question within its own boundaries. 


294. Death of President Harrison. 

Within a month from the time of his inaguration, Presi- 
dent Harrison died. He had reached the age of sixty-nine. 
John Tyler who was vice-President now took the oath of office 
and became President. People were very anxious to find out how 


_ the new leader would get along with the Whigs. 


295. Tyler a Virginia Democrat. 
While Tyler was elected as a Whig, he was at heart a 


Democrat. It is not strange, therefore, that trouble arose. 


Clay was still the leader of the Whigs and through his advice 
the party now advocated the repeal of the Independent Treas- 
ury law, the creation of a National bank, and a new tariff. 
Tyler did not oppose the first two, but did oppose a high 
tariff. After the President had vetoed two successive bills, 
Clay resigned, having decided that harmony with Tyler was 
impossible. A tariff which the President approved was adopt- 
ed in 1842. 

Tyler was nominated for the vice-presidency by the Whigs 


in order to secure Southern votes and therefore make certain 


the election of Harrison. 


38 FIRST QUARTER 


296. Webster-Ashburton Treaty. 


For many years the boundary of the United States be- 
tween Maine and Canada had been in dispute. It was settled 
in 1842, by Daniel Webster of the United States, and Lord 
Ashburton of England, who fixed the boundary as it is at 
present. 

This settlement was a good thing for both countries for 
feeling over the matter had been very bitter with war—not an 
impossibility. Our northern boundary was fixed between the 
Lake of the Woods, Minnesota, and the Rocky Mountains, at the 
49th parallel. 

Webster also took occasion to insist in this treaty that our 
flag protected our vessels against the right of search. 


297. Tyler Favors Annexation of Texas. 


In April, 1844, the Senate rejected the petition of Texas to 
be admitted to the Union. Tyler and those favoring the admis- 
sion of the state waited until after the election of Polk, which 
seemed to indicate that the people in general favored the annexa- 
tion. March 1, 1845, a joint resolution was passed by Congress 
which provided for its admission. 


298. Presidential Campaign of 1844. 


The annexation of Texas was the chief campaign issue in 
the election of 1844. VanBuren’ was passed by in favor of 
James K. Polk of Tennessee by the Democratic party, because 
Van Buren opposed annexation. Polk has been referred to as” 
“the first dark horse” in American politics. Polk was openly for — 
annexation. 

Clay was nominated by the Whigs, but made the mistake in 
the midst of the campaign of writing to some Southern Whigs 
and telling them he was not personally opposed to annexation. 
The radical anti-slavery men saw in Clay’s stand an attempt to. 
dodge the issue. They saw that if Texas was admitted, it meant ~ 
the extension of slavery, so they withdrew and voted for James G. 
Birney, who was the candidate of the Abolitionists on a ticket 
known as the “Liberty Party.” Their withdrawal gave the State 
of New York to Polk, and therefore elected him. 


ILLINOIS HISTORY. 


(1) Mlinois Admitted as a Free State. 


Slavery was introduced in Illinois by Phillipe Renault. 
When the Ordinance of 178% was passed, Article Six of - 
that ordinance provided: 


FIRST QUARTER 39 


“That there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary 
servitude in the said territory, otherwise than in the punish- 
ment of crimes, whereof the party shall have been duly con- 
victed.” 

Four attempts were made to get Congress to annul this 
sixth article. The first petition was sent to Congress in 
~ January, 1796, the second in 1799, a third in 1800, and a fourth 
in 1802. All petitions sent to Congress to annul this sixth 
article came to nothing. 

The Ordinance of 1787 prohibited slavery in the North- 
west Territory and in states that were to be formed from this 
great body of land. 

According to the Ordinance of 1787, a government was 
organized for the Northwest Territory, and President Wash- 
ington appointed Gen. Arthur St. Clair as the first governor 
and Marietta on the Ohio River was chosen as the seat of 
government. In 1791, St. Clair, at the request of the Presi- 
dent, went to Kaskaskia, where he organized the County of 
St. Clair and made Cahokia its county seat. The new county 
included the country as far north as the Little Mackinaw 
Creek on the Illinois River. A sheriff, recorder of deeds, and 
three judges were appointed to look after the needs. of the 
people. 

Later on, in 1809, the Territory of Illinois was separated 
from Indiana. A territorial government was formed, with 
Ninian Edwards in charge as Governor. Settlers from the 
older states—Kentucky, Tennessee, and others—now began 
to come into the territory very rapidly, and by 1818 the. 
population had reached about 40,000. There were fifteen coun-. 
ties also, in 1818, and the people began to insist on being taken 
into the Union as a state. According to the Ordinance of 
1787, a territory needed 60,000 to be eligible for statehood. It 
will be well to remember, however, that Congress could alter 
the provisions of the ordinance. This they did, and soon steps 
were taken to admit Illinois, with 40,000 people. Nathanial 
Pope, the territorial delegate in Congress, succeeded in having 
the northern boundary moved as far north as 42° 9’, so that 
Chicago and the new state might embrace a part of Lake 
Michigan. 

In the summer of 1818, a constiutional convention, con- 
sisting of thirty-three delegates, met at Kaskaskia, and drew 
up a brief constitution, resembling that of ‘Kentucky and 
Tennessee. It provided for the following elective officers 
only: Governor, Lieutenant-Governor, Sheriff, Coroner, and 
County Commissioners. Of course members of the General 


40 FIRST QUARTER 


\ 


Assembly were to be elected by the people. Since that time 


the state has had several new constitutions. 

Having fulfilled all the requirements, Illinois was ad- 
mitted to the Union, December 3, 1818. 

Most people did not approve of slavery, but some of the set- 
tlers had come from the South, and brought their negroes with 
them. Naturally they wished to continue the practice. It was per- 
haps due to James Madison that this element did not secure the 


repeal of the clause in the ordinance of 1787 that prohibited slay- 


ery. In 1818 the state was admitted as a free state but with bitter 
opposition from the slave owners. The feeling had not died out in 
1822, when Edward Coles, a strong anti-slavery man, though a 
native of Virginia was elected governor. He urged the General 
Assembly to repeal the stringent black laws, and to free the slaves 


of the French settlers, who still held their blacks in bondage. The 


fight to make Illinois a slave state still continued, and an attempt 
was made to amend the constitution, by submitting it to a vote 
of the people. During the eighteen months before the election 


everyone joined in the strife. Families were divided, even per- 


sonal altercations were not uncommon. “Friends of freedom” 

organized themselves into anti-slavery societies, wnile Governor 
Cole gave his entire year’s salary, $4,000, to ‘aid in the fight. 
When voting day came, every elegible voter in the state went to 
the polls, but slavery was defeated by 1,800 majority. Many 
consider this the most important election ever held in Illinois. At 
least it settled for all time the question of slavery in the state, and 
feeling in the matter now died out so rapidly that within a year’s 


time, few would admit that they had formerly belonged to the | 


losing side. 


(a) Some Territorial Laws. ~ 


When in 1809 the territory of Illinois was [cone from 
that of Indiana, Ninian Edwards of Kentucky was made Gov- 
ernor of the new territory. Two things now led to the rapid 
settlement of this country. The first was the peace with the 


Indians that came after the war of 1812, and the second was an 
act of Congress in 1813, which gave the new settler a right to 


hold any piece of land upon which he had made improvements. - 


That is, he had first right to purchase the land from the govern- 
ment. This was called the “right of preemption”. No other 
would be purchaser had the right to buy this particular tract, 
until the first settler had been given the right to do so. In the 
purchase of this land, often skins of various animals, was ac- 
cepted in lieu of money. 


oe 


FIRST QUARTER 41 


(b) Territorial Banks. 


In 1816 the first territorial bank was established at Shawnee- 
town and was known as the “Bank of Illinois.” The next year, 


* similar ones were opened at Edwardsville and Kaskaskia. 


(c) Services of Nathaniel Pope. 

Among the names of men, who did much for the new state 
of Illinois must be mentioned Nathaniel Pope. Pope was a man 
who thoroughly understood the needs of the territory, and it was 
a wise choice which sent him to Congress as the territorial dele- 
gate. It is due Judge Pope, that certain very wise amendments 


_ were made to the bill which admitted Illinois to the Union as a 


— 


state. 


ene 


have aes Se to thank for many of the school advantages 
they have today. This amendment specified that three-fifths of the 
five per cent fund from the sale of public lands should be given 
for use in “the encouragement af education” and of this sum one- 
sixth should be used for the founding of a university or state col- 
lege. 
Another amendment which gave us the location of Chicago, 
provided that the northern boundary should be extended to the 
parallel of 42 degrees and 9 minutes north latitude. This included 
about fifty miles more northern land than that given by the Ordi- 
nance of 1787. Judge Pope urged this because he said it was 
most necessary for the commercial development of the state that 
we have a part of Lake Michigan. But a glance at Chicago and 


the surrounding land, shows the great wisdom of Judge Pope. . 


Had this land not been included, Chicago would have been in 
Wisconsin. It also gave us Galena, the home of Grant, and the 
votes of the fourteen counties formed by this strip gave the Re 
publican party control in Illinois in’ 1856, and made certain th 
candidacy of Abraham Lincoln for President. 


(d) Making the State’s First Constitution. 

In all, Illinois had three constitutions. The first was made 
in 1818—the second in 1848, and the third in 1870. 

The first constitution was drafted in Kaskaskia in July, 1818, 
by thirty-three delegates who met for that purpose. Most of the 
men were farmers, but shrewd and withmore or less experience 
in public business. It was a short affair, consisting of but eight 
articles, these based largely on the state constitutions of Ohio, 
Indiana and Kentucky. 

No salaries were fixed but a limit of $1,000 per year was put 
on that for the Governor, and $600 for the Secretary of State. 


42 FIRST QUARTER 
J 

Most of the state officers were to be appointed by the Governor 
or the General Assembly. The Governor, Lieutenant Governor, 
Sheriff, Coroner, and County Commissioners were the only ones 
elected by popular vote. 

After finishing their work the commission disbanded Augie 
26, 1818. 


(e) The Status of Slavery in Illinois. 


In 1619, the first slaves were brought to America by a Dutch 
trader. These were sold to Virginia planters and proved very 
profitable. In 1721, Philip Renault, a Frenchman, bought 500 
negroes in San Domingo and brought them to Ft. Chartres. 
south of Cahokia. A commercial company at this point, expected 
to open up gold and silver mines, and expected to use the slaves 
to work them. But, no gold or silver mines were located, so the 
negroes were sold to the French settlers already there. All the 
French held slaves of later date were descendants from these first 
brought from San Domingo. But slavery never gained any great 
foothold in Illinois and as late as 1820, there were less than a 
thousand in the whole state. 


(f) The State Admitted. 


The state constitution was completed August 26, 1818 and 
on December 3, 1818, the territory of Illinois was admitted as 
a new state of the Union. It came in as a free state, but under 
bitter protest from the slave-owning members. 


(g) Organization of the State Government. 


The first constitution provided for the election of the Gov- 
ernor, Lieutenant Governor, Sheriff, Coronor,.and County Com- 
missioners by popular vote. Other ‘officers were selected by the 
Governor or the General Assembly. The veto power was given 
to a “Council of Revision” which consisted of the Governor and 
the judges of the Supreme Court. This constitution though 
poorly suited to the needs of the new state was in force till 1848. 


SECOND QUARTER 43 


SECOND QUARTER 


{rn 


_ 299. Slavery Problem Not Settled by the Missouri Compromise. 


Most people believed that when the Missouri Compromise 
was passed in 1820, that the question of slavery was settled for- 
ever, but that forever was but a short time—twenty-five, years in 
this case, for in 1845, there came the question of the annexation 
of Texas, in 1846-8, the question of the Wilmot Proviso, then the 
compromise of 1850, and the Kansas-Nebraska Bill of 1854. 

Each will be discussed later. 


300. Benjamin Lundy, the Pioneer Abolitionist. 


In 1829, when Jackson became President the question of 
slavery had reached a stage when it was attracting the attention 
- of many more or less seriously. But few had made a personal 
issue of the question. Among these was Benjamin Lundy, a New 
Jersey Quaker, who had begun to travel all over the country 
‘foot or horseback to talk against the institution of human servi- 
tude. He published a journal “The Genuis of Universal Eman- 
‘cipation” which he edited at his own expense and distributed as 
he went from place to place. To his efforts is due largely the fact 
_ that William Lloyd Garrison, a young editor, became interested 
in the cause. 


301. William Lloyd Garrison Founds the Liberator. 


Sentiment against slavery became very pronounced in 
tthe North. Some of the states passed laws freeing their slaves. 
‘Of the original thirteen states the following took this action: 
Massachusetts, New Hampshire, Pennsylvania, Connecticut, 
Rhode Island, New Jersey, and New York. Anti-slavery 
societies began to be formed here and there. William Lloyd 
Garrison, who advocated the abolition of slavery, began the 
publication of an anti-slavery paper, called the “Liberator,” 
in which he contended for enfranchisement of our negro 
population. In 1832, he also organized the New England 
Anti-Slavery Society and later the American Anti-Slavery 
Society. There was, however, much opposition to his theories, 
even in the North, and he was dragged through the streets of 
Boston and almost killed by a mob. 


&. 
; ‘ 
4 ew i 


é sj 8 Be 
A HOUSE DIVIDED AGAINST ITSELF CANNOT STAND. * 


on 


44 SECOND QUARTER ! 


302. Nat Turner’s Insurrection. " 

In 1831, Nat Turner, a negro, raised a band of blacks who 
rose in Virginia against their masters, and killed sixty white men, 
women and children. This really alarmed the Southern slave 
owners who felt that the agitators up North were really instigat- 
ing wholesale killing of the Southern whites. This caused them 
to protest even more vigorously against permitting abolition 
papers being carried by the mails. . 

303. The Assassination of Lovejoy. 

Rev. E. P. Lovejoy was a young school teacher who later 
learned to preach the Gospel, and afterwards edited and pub- 
lished a religious paper which finally became an anti-slavery 
paper. He moved from’St. Louis to Alton. As soon as his 
printing press landed at Alton, it was seized by a mob of 
pro-slavery people and destroyed. He obtained another and 
after using it about a year it was destroyed. Not to be dis-. 
couraged so easily, he obtained a third, but it, too, was de- 
stroyed. Not yet to be outdone, he obtained a fourth and 
stored it in a warehouse, where it was guarded by some of his 
friends. A mob attacked the warehouse, fired several shots, 
and finally set fire to the building. Lovejoy tried to defend 
himself, but at last was pierced by five bullets and fell dead. . 
This shows how strong slavery sentiment was in Illinois at 
one time. 


The City of Alton and the State of Illinois later contrib- al. 


uted money, and a monument was erected at Alton to his 
memory. 
304. Organization of Anti-Slavery Societies. | 

In 1833, at Philadelphia, was formed the American Parties :? 
Slavery Society. Its leaders were Garrison and Whittier. 

Their beliefs as butlined in their declaration of principles, 
marks an important movement in United States history for they 
were the beliefs that finally led to the dissolution of the Union 
and the Civil War. This was but one of many similar societies 
formed each demanding that Congress should abolish slavery in 
the territories and the District of Columbia, should stop inter- 
slave trade, and that no more slave states should be admitted to 
the Union. 

They planned to organize other societies, talk scene slavery 
through the press, and from the pulpit, and use any awful means - 
to put an end to the human traffic. a 


305. Great Men Who Opposed Slavery. 


Among the great men who opposed slavery were Garrison, 
John G. Whittier, James Russell Lowell, Wendell Phillips, James 


ee cena pert 


SECOND QUARTER 45 


G. Birney, William Ellery Channing, Horace Greeley, Daniel 
Webster. st Hi, ss WO TS Be 


ye 806. The Gag Rule and the Old Man Eloquent. ber 


After retiring from the Presidency, John Quincy Adams 

was elected in 1831 to the lower House of Congress. Here he 
~ remained working deligently till his death in 1848. During this 
time he devoted practically all his energies to a defense of the 
people’s right to petition Congress, and to have the petition read 
and acted upon. Adams was not really an abolitionist, but in the 
case of these petitions, he of necessity espoused this side. He 
referred to the efforts of the pro-slavery people to refuse the right 
of petition as mere “gag rules’. Feeling among the pro-slavery 
followers became very strong against Adams, and an unsuccess- 
ful effort was made to rid the House of him, Adams even went 
so far as to make the assertion that Congress could abolish slavery 
on the ground that it was a military necessity. Trying as was 
Adams’ position, he continued the fight until the “gag policy” was 

_ abandoned in 1844. 


307. The Admission of Texas. 


Texas was annexed by the United States, March 1, 1845, a 
few days before Tyler’s term of office expired, but was not ad- 
mitted to the union until December 29, of the same year, 1845. 


308. The Oregon Question Settled. 
- The controversy with Great Britain over the joint occu- 
pation of Oregon was settled by treaty in 1846. The United 
| States took all the territory north of California, including the 
Vc Columbia River to parallel 49° north. The English took all 
7 north of 49° to Alaska. The following states have been carved 
out of the territory which we obtained: Oregon, Washington, 
Idaho, and parts of Wyoming and Montana. We Were for- 
tunate in the peaceful settlement of the matter. 


a WAR WITH MEXICO. 


309. The Dispute About the Boundary of Texas. 
Mexico insisted that thé western boundary of Texas should 
be at the Rio Nueces River. Texas insisted it was at the Rio 
Grande. Polk sent General Zachery Taylor to the northern bank 
of the Rio Grande to defend our possessions. Thereupon the 
Mexicans declared their land had been invaded and fired upon our 
troops. 


or ait 


| 310. The ‘‘Army of Occupation.’’ 
: _ The settlement of the boundary of Texas was not the 
\e chief reason for war with Mexico. Many Americans were 


4 
3 


46 SECOND QUARTER 


determined to have no other western boundary for the United 
States than the Pacific- Ocean. Early in the war, General 
Kearney was sent to conquer New Mexico and California, a 
thinly settled part of the Mexican republic. Santa Fe, the 
capital of New Mexico, was taken without a struggle, and 
New Mexico was declared a part of the United States. Gen- 
eral Kearney at once pushed on into California. 

The Americans living there had set up a government for 
themselves as soon as they heard of the war with Mexico. 
They called this the “Bear Flag Republic.” The United 
States had placed warships off the coast ready to take ad- 
vantage of any excuse for seizing California.. It was thought 
that Great Britain and France both meant to seize that region 
if they could, so when the war with Mexico began Commo- 
dore Stockton, commander of the Pacific squadron, demanded 
the surrender of Monterey, San Francisco, and other ports. 
All were given up without opposition.—Eggleston, pp. 276, 277. 

In 1845 General John C. Fremont had led an exploring 
expedition to California. Fortunately, he had a band of men 
under his command, and he gave effective assistance to” 


~ Kearney and Stockton. 


311. General Taylor on the Rio Grande. 


General Taylor started on his campaign from Palo Alto, 
here he defeated the Mexicans. They moved to Resaca dé la 
Palma; at this place, Taylor .overtook them and they were ~ 
defeated again. ‘They then crossed the Rio Grande River, and 
was again met by Taylor at Matamoras and defeated. 

All this happened before war had been declared. 

After war had been declared, Taylor moved on to Monte- 


rey, where he met a force much larger than his.own and after 


fighting four days the Mexicans surrendered. The next year 
February 27, 1847, Santa Anna led a force against Taylor at 
Buena Vista; after an all day’s fight Santa Anna was defeated. 

Note.—Have pupils draw a map of Mexico and show 
Taylor's campaign. 


312. Generai Scott’s March to Mexico City. 


General Scott’s object was to take Mexico City, which 
was the Mexican capital. He landed at Vera Cruz and after 
fighting nine days the stronghold was taken. He then marched 
toward the city of Mexico, all went well until he reached the 
mountain pass of Cerro ‘Gordo, where Santa Anna with about 
fifteen thousand men was waiting for him. A terrible battle 
was fought in which the Americans were victorious. Small 


SECOND QUARTER 47 


battles were fought at Contreras, Churubusco, and San An- 
tonio, the Americans winning ‘them all. They were now close 
to Mexico City; around the city were small forts and these 
were held by about thirty thousand Mexicans. General Scott’s # 
army numbered about ten thousand. After terrific fighting 
the Mexicans were driven from the forts and the Mexican 
capital was taken. This ended the war. 


% - $13. The Treaty of Peace. bee 


February 2, 1848, the Treaty of Peace was signed at Guada- 
loupe Hidalgo. By it, we obtained nearly a million of square 
miles, the territory of California and New Mexico, Nevada, Utah, 
Arizona, and parts of Colorado and Wyoming, also “undisputed 
possession of Texas. We paid Mexico $15, 000,000 for the terri- 
tory, besides assuming about $3,000,000 in claims held against 
her by the people of Texas. 

The war had cost about $100,000,000 and 13,000 lives. 


314. Importance of the Territory Acquired. 


By the treaty with Mexico, we acquired over 800,000 square 
miles. It was our fifth national expansion and many at the time 
complained that Texas simply meant “taxes.’”’ However, today 
_ the assessed value of Texas alone is fifty times greater than the 
cost of the whole Mexican land payment. Perhaps greatest good 
resulting from the transaction was that it gave us California, 
_ therefore a nation that stretched from ocean to ocean. In 1853, asp 
we gained control of another tract of land just south of the Gila 
River for $10,000,000 by an agreement known as the Gadsden 

Purchase. — 


315. The Wilmot Proviso. 


David Wilmot was a Pennsylvania Democrat, and a rep- 
resentative in Congress from that State. He offered a bill in 
Congress prohibiting slavery in any of the territory which we 
acquired from Mexico. The bill passed the House of Repre- 
sentatives but failed to pass the Senate, hence it did not be- 
come a law, but brought up an angry discussion of the slavery 
question. 


' DEBATES AND COMPROMISES. 


316. The Presidential Campaign of 1848. 
Gen. Taylor was elected President by the Whigs over the 
Democrat candidate Louis Cass, and Martin Van Buren, the F. ree 
Soil candidate. e : 


48 SECOND QUARTER 


In the compaign of 1848, slavery in the territories, was the 
principal question. ‘The Democrats nominated Lewis Cass of 
Michigan for President and William Butler of Kentucky for Vice- 
President. But the party was divided on the slavery question, for 
those who were anti-slavery men wished to adopt the Wilmot 
Proviso as one of its principles, but were opposed in this by the 
slave owing Democrats of the South. Nothing was mentioned in 
the final party platform about slavery. 

The Whigs were equally as‘seriously divided. General Tay- 


lor had been nominated as their candidate for President and Mil- © 


lard Fillmore of New York as Vice-President. Many doubted 
that Taylor was a Whig at heart. He was also a slave owner. 
Like the Democrats, the Northern Whigs wanted to adopt the 
Wilmot Proviso, the Southern Whigs refused to do so. There- 
fore, the radical slavery men among the Whigs revolted and with 
the radical Democrats formed the Free Soil Party. They nomin- 
ated Van Buren as their candidate for President and Chas. Fran- 
ces Adams, son of John Quincy Adams, for Vice-President. 

ag John P. Hale had been nominated by the Liberty Party for — 
President but he later withdrew and turned his support to Van- 
Buren and Adams. They polled 293,000 votes in the election 
over 100,000 of which were from New York. This gave New 
York to Taylor, and thus won him the election. ine eh 


317. Discovery of Gold in California. 


Gold was discovered in California in February, 1848, by 
James Marshall. The news of this aroused the civilized world, 
and people flocked to California from all quarters of the globe. 
They left their work and rushed to California, expecting to get 
immensely rich. So many people settled there that in 1849 it 
demanded admission as a free state. California, never was a 
territory. 

_ All classes of people rushed to the gold fields. Farmers, - 
soldiers, sailors, preachers, doctors, and lawyers. Bad men 
as well as good rushed to California, and many times the 
miners were robbed by these desperadoes. At last the citi- 
zens organized themselves into “Vigilance Committees” for 
the purpose of keeping down crime. 


318. California Seeks Admission into the Union. 


_ A few days before peace was declared in Mexico, gold was 
discovered in California, January 19, 1848. Immediately hords 
flocked from all quarters of the earth to hunt for the precious ore. 
By the summer of 1849, so great had been the invasion, that Cali- 
fornia had a population of over 100,000, while San Francisco had 
20,000. As might be expected, many of the newcomers were - 


SECOND QUARTER 49 


men of the worst type and at first lynch law was the only law 
recognized. However, soon concerted efforts were made to 
organize a state and in September, 1849, with General Riley as 
military governor, a convention of delegates met, and drew up 
the plans for a new state. In their constitution, they opposed 
slavery, and prohibited it within the boundary of the state, and in 
the fall of the same year, 1849, applied for admission to the 
Union. a 

Naturally their petition was opposed by the South. They 

‘ argued that California should be first formed into a territory, then 
the people should decide about the slavery question before it was 
admitted. They realized that if California was admitted as a free 
state, it would break the balance in the Senate, for there was no 
Southern state ready to come into the Union as a slave state. 
Iowa had been admitted in 1846 as a free state to offset the 
admission of Texas in 1845; while Wisconsin in 1848 had evened 
up the score of Florida, admitted 1845. But there was no pros- 
pect of any slave state being ready for admission any ways soon, 
so the South opposed the admission of California bitterly. Of 
course, the anti-slavery men of the North as warmly favored it. 

319, Serious Problems Before Congress. 

A number of very serious problems now came up in Con- 
gress. We may state them as follows: 

1. Should slave-holders be permitted to take their slaves 
into any and all parts of the new territory acquired from 
‘Mexico? } 

2. Should California come in as a free state? 

8. Should slavery be abolished in the District of Co- 
lumbia? 

4. Should Congress adopt a new law demanding the re- 
turn of fugitive slaves? 

5. Interstate slave trade. ’ 

: 6. Boundary of Texas. Texas was putting forth her claims 
to a large share of New Mexico and Congress was puzzled to 
know whether to allow her claims or not. 

. By far the most difficult of these problems was the question 

of slavery in the territories. The Mexican War had been largely 
responsible for the recurrence of this question for by the treaty 
of peace we acquired 800,000 square miles of new territory. Had | 

the Wilmot Proviso passed, it would have excluded slavery from 
this region. Many felt that the Missouri boundary 36° 30’ should 

_ be extended to the Pacific, making all north of the line free and 
4ll south of the line slave states. This plan was favored by Polk 
and would have satisfied the majority of the slave owners of the 
South. The more radical element of the South, led by Calhoun, 


, . * 


50 SECOND QUARTER 


however, insisted that Congress should protect the slave interests 
in all territories, for the territories till they became states, were 
the property of the Government, hence owned by the South as 
well as the North. 


320. The Great Debates. 


This was the situation when Taylor in 1849 was ingneuree 
President. He was a Southerner and a slave owner, but he did 7 
not wish to see slave territory extended unless the people so 
wished. Henry Clay, the Great Pacificator, now urged his com- 
promise. This he believed the only safe thing to do, for he saw 
the Union was in danger. He spoke time and again, urging mod- 
eration and compromise from both sides. 

Calhoun, long an ardent defender of slavery, spoke for the 


South. The hand of death was even them upon him, and his. . 


speech was read by Senator Mason of Virginia. Like Clay, he - 
forsaw the time when the Union would be imperiled by the 
slavery question.. He argued that the South must have equal 
rights in the territories with the North. He demanded that fugi- 
tive slaves be returned to their owners, and that the North cease 
to agitate the slavery question. He saw that the South was no | 
longer equal to the North either in population or wealth, but that 
she must remain equal in political power if she remained in the 
Union. 

This speech of Calhoun was followed by Webster’s famous 
“Seventh of March Speech.” He said little about slavery, but. 
blamed the Abolitionists of the North more than he blamed the’ 
planters of the South for the sectional strife that had arisen. 
Webster’s speech was bitterly condemned by his anti-slavery 
friends. But as Webster saw the need, it was to save the Union, 
not to destroy slavery. Not till a decade later did people recog- 
nize his wisdom. His influence helped to secure the passage of © 
the Corhpromise of 1850, and thus postpone the war for more 
than ten years. * 

Seward spoke for the anti-slavery element of the North. He 
opposed the Fugitive Slave Law, and insisted on arg in 
the District of Columbia. 


321. Death of President Taylor. 


At the time of the discussion of the Compromise of 1850, 
the great leaders—Webster, Clay, and Calhoun—were prac- 
tically ending their brilliant careers. When Clay offered the 
terms of the compromise and delivered his great speech, he 
was seventy-three years of age and physically weak. He, 
however, showed great mental power still. Calhoun spoke for 
the South in what proved to be his last speech. He was so 


if 


t} 


— 


SECOND QUARTER 61 


feeble that his speech had to be read by Senator Mason, of 
Virginia. He thought, in order to save the Union, it would 
be necessary to amend the Constitution, and have two presi- 
dents—one for the Free states and one for the Slave states. 
Before any bill could become a law, it would have to be 
signed by both Presidents. This speech was delivered March 
4, 1850. He died a short time afterwards. On the seventh of 
March, Webster followed with a speech in the Senate. He 
spoke for the Union, but denounced the Abolitionists, saying 
that they did nothing but harm. He apologized for slavery 
and said that the South had more room to complain than the 
North. The speech was probably the outgrowth of his fear 
of secession, but the North regarded him as a traitor. This 
was practically the end of his career. Both Webster and Clay 
died in 1852. New leaders, however, were at hand—Sumner, 
Seward, Davis, Douglas, and Lincoln. 

July 9, 1850 President Taylor died. His death came in the 
midst of the debate on the Fugitive Slave Law. He was suc- 
ceeded by Vice-President Fillmore. oP, 

ee a ne Iv AD 
322. The Compromise Measure Passed. <——- 

The question of the admission of California into the Union 
was growing warmer and warmer. Finally, Henry Clay de- 
vised a plan, which has ever since been known as the “Com- 
promise of 1850.” Five bills were passed by Congress which 
was believed would settle the trouble over slavery. They 
were: 

1. California was admitted as a free state. 

2. New Mexico and Utah were given territorial govern- 


-ments without restriction as to slavery. 


3. A law was passed to provide for the arrest and return 
of fugitive slaves. 

4, The slave trade in the District of Columbia was 
abolished. , 

5. A Fugitive Slave Law, stringent enough to satisfy 


the South was passed. i 


323.. The Fugitive Slave Law. 


The Compromise of 1850 failed to bring about hoped for 
harmony. Neither side was really satisfied. Especially was this 
true of the North. It was at the Fugitive Slave Law that the 
real balk came. Under the old law, owners had had to search 
out and return their own runaway slaves. Now, by the law of 
1850, United States officers were compelled to give their aid. 
They resented seeing federal officers come into their free towns, 
seize, handcuff, and drag away some negro who was given no 


bs 
aN 
* ~~ 


52 SECOND QUARTER 


chance to prove whether he was or was not the person sought. 
_ Many people who before had no strong convictions on the ques- 


tion of slavery, now became bitter opponents of the institution. 


324, The Underground Railway. 


One of the most difficult things to do is to force people by a, 


law to do something they do not wish to do. It will very often 
cause people who were in the beginning but mildly opposed to a 
measure to become bitter partisans against it. This was just 
what happened to the case of the Fugitive Slave Law. Many 
who before had been passive in their opposition now became 
active, and aided in helping negroes escape from their masters 
and get to Canada. Agents were sent to the South, who brought 
slaves up North where they were passed from family to family, 
hidden during the day time and carried at night toward Canada. 
This was known as the Underground Railway, and the pfaces 


where the fugitives were hidden during the day were bailed : 


stations. 


325. Uncle Tom’s Cabin. 


In 1852, there was published a novel by Harriet Beater 
Stowe, called “Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” which many historians give 
as one of the causes which brought on the Civil War. This may 
be overstating the case, but it is true that no other one thing so 
aroused the-North at this time as did this book. It was read, 
quoted, and dramatized in every city, town and village in the 
North. 

The South was also aroused by the book. They declared it 


a silly misrepresentation of facts, but it served its purpose and 


aroused both sections to a point where a clash was eminent. 


326. Presidential Campaign of 1852. Pag 


By the time of the 1852 campaign, many of the anti-slavery 
men who had left the old parties—the Whigs and Democrats, 
returned. 

In 1840, there had been formed a party called the Cesty 
Paten.” James C. Birney was their candidate and polled 7,000 
votes. In 1844, he again was their candidate and polled 62 000. 

In 1848, the Free Soil Party was formed and nominated 
Martin Van Buren for President. Their vote this time was almost 


300,000. But in the campaign of 1852 the Free Soil Party nomi- . 
nated John P. Hale of New York, and the vote fell to about Bele 


of the 1848 vote. 

Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire and William R. King oe 
Alabama were the Democratic candidates, while General Win- 
field S. Scott of Virginia and William A. Graham of North 


/ 


SECOND QUARTER 53 


Carolina were the Whig candidates. John P. Hale of New 


_ Hampshire and George W. Julian of Indiana were the Free Soil 


candidates. 

Pierce was elected. 

The Whigs were so thoroughly beaten that they never again 
appeared as a party. 


~ 


\ 
THE IRREPRESSIBLE CONFLICT. 
327. Attempts to Acquire Cuba by Purchase. 


The Southern states wanted Cuba, which equals in area 
Pennsylvania. It is just off our coast at Key West, Florida. In 


‘1845, the United States offered Spain $100,000,000 for the island, 


but it was refused. Later, armed forces tried to sieze the island 
for the South. In 1854, the American ministers then stationed 
in Great Britain, France and Spain, met at Ostend, in Belgium, to 
discuss the Cuban situation. They declared that the situation in 
Cuba was a menace to the United States and if Spain persisted 


in refusing to sell the island to us, we would have good ground for 


taking it by force. 
328, Personal Liberty Laws, 
Personal Liberty Laws were passed as early as 1840 in many 
Northern states. These laws insisted that negroes should not be 
kidnapped and carried into slavery without due trial. They were 


. intended to frustrate the Fugitive Slave Law>~™ IGS ¢ be of 


329. The Kansas-Nebraska Bill. - 

Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, offered a bill in Conve 
organizing the territories of Kansas and Nebraska. Slavery 
at this time was uppermost in the people’s mind. In regard 
to slavery in these territories, Stephen A. Douglas advocated 


_ the doctrine of “Squatter Sovereignty.” This meant that the 


_ people in these territories could decide for themselves whether 


they wanted slavery or not. This greatly surprised and an- 


gered the Northern people. They argued that it would repeal 


the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The Missouri Compro- 


_ mise had shut slavery out of all territory north of 36° 30’, and 


Kansas and Nebraska were both north. In spite of all the 
opposition to the Kansas-Nebraska bill, it became a law in 
1854. It repealed the Missouri Compromise. Douglas claimed 


_ that the Compromise of 1850 said the territories of Utah and 


New Mexico were to decide the question of slavery them- 
selves, then Kansas and Nebraska should have the same privi- 
lege. It is not known why Douglas took this course, probably 
he believed his measure would take the slavery question out 
of the hands of Congress, and give it to the people to settle. 


64 SECOND QUARTER 


330. The New Party—The Anti-Nebraska Party. 


A meeting of Anti-Nebraska editors took place at Decatur, 
Illinois. Eleven editors took part in the meeting, and before 
they adjourned they appointed a State Central Committee, 
which was to meet at Bloomington, Illinois, in May, 1856. At 
this meeting Lincoln made his famous speech which brought 


him before the public as a possible candidate for the Presi- 


dency. It might be said from these eleven editors sprang the 
Republican Party. 

This Republican Party was made up of anti-slavery 
they called themselves “Anti-Nebraska” men, but later when 
their party was organized they took the name “Republicans.” 

Very few men will change over from one political party 
to another that has been in existence for some time; conse- 
quently it would have been folly to attempt to unite under one 


of the old names; they all carried with them associations more » 


or less distasteful to members of the other parties. So a new 
name was necessary, and in the name “Republican,” they 
made a most fortunate choice. This was the name of the party 
of Jefferson that had been so popular in its day. By taking its 
name they proclaimed that they were returning to the prin- 
_ ciples of Jefferson and true democracy, and no other name 


that they could have chosen would have appealed so strongly 


to the masses of the people. If ever there was magic in a 
name, there was in this. In the first year of its existence, it 
had majorities in fifteen of the States, and one hundred and 
seventeen members in Congress. 


ne | 


In their platform, they opposed the repeal of the Missouri - 


Compromise, the extension of slavery, favored the admission 
of Kansas as a free state, also favored the Pacific railroad 
and other internal improvements. 


In 1856’ the Republicans nominated John C. Fremont for 


President, the Whigs nominated Millard Fillmore, and the 
Democrats nominated James Buchanan. At the election Fre- 
mont received 114 electoral votes, Fillmore 8, Buchanan 174. 


331. Bleeding Kansas. 


As any one might suppose the Kansas-Nebraska Bill gave .. 


the Sotithern people an opportunity to try to win Kansas and 
Nebraska for slave states. 


The Northern people would try just as hard to win them 


for free states. 


As soon as President Pierce had signed the bill making . 


it a law, the people began to pour into the new territory. The 
slavery people made the start and came from Missouri, and 


SECOND QUARTER 55 


had their headquarters at Lecompton and Leavenworth. In 
a short time the Northern people from Boston sent out emi- 
grants. They had their headquarters at Lawrence and To- 
peka. 

The pro-slavery people of Lecompton formed a State 
Constitution and established slavery. The anti-slavery people 
of Topeka formed a Free State Constitution, which was easily 
ratified because the pro-salvery people would not vote on it. 
The people of Kansas were to decide whether it was to be a 
slave or free state. The election of members of the territorial 
legislature took place in March, 1854. If the legislature should 
have a majority of the free state men, Kansas would be a free 
state; if it had a majority of slave state men it would then be 
a slave state. 

The pro-slavery men were So anxious to win Kansas for 
a slave state that unfair means were used. At the election, 
men from Missouri came into Kansas and voted, and it is said 
that when the votes were counted there were more ballots 
than voters. 

After several years of hard struggle, the free settlers had 
increased in Kansas, and after asking Congress several times 
to be admitted as a free state, it was not until 1861 that its 
request was granted, and Kansas came into our Union as 7 
free state. 

ut during the years 1854 to 1861 Kansas was really a battle 
ground for the contending forces. It really amounted to Civil 
War in the territory, and soon fully deserved the name by which 
it was known for years—Bleeding Kansas. The “border ruffians,”’ 
as the pro-slavery element was called, contended for supremacy 
with the anti-slave element known as the New England Emigrant 
Aid Society. 

By the beginning of 1856 there were two rival governments 
in Kansas—each claiming to be the legal representatives of the 
people. Though the free-state government had the majority of 
the Kansas people backing it, President Pierce and the Territorial 
Governor recognized the slave-state government. When in March, 
1856, the free state legislature met, elected two senators to the 
United States Senate and asked to be admitted to the Union, it 


brought up before Congress again the whole question of slavery. 


asc veer? 


332. The Dred Scott Decision. 


Dred Scott was a negro slave, and the son of slave par- 
ents. His master had taken him from Missouri, which was a 
slave state, into Illinois, which was a free state. Dred Scott 
and his master then moved to Minnesota. This was a free 
territory, being made free by the Missouri Compromise. Then 


56 SECOND QUARTER 


they moved back to Missouri. There he was sold to a new 
master. Dred Scott thought he had lived long enough in free 
territory to be a free man. He sued for his freedom. The 
case was tried-in the lower courts, and finally carried to the 
United States Supreme Court. Here Chief Justice Taney 
gave his decision. He announced that Scott, because he was 
the son of slave parents, was not an American citizen, there- 
fore he had no right to sue for his liberty. He also declared 
Congress had no right or power to prohibit slavery in_any 
territory; this in other words meant the Missouri Compro- 
mise did'not amount to anything. The decision pleased the 
South, but greatly angered the North. The North felt as 
though all the territories were now thrown open to slavery; 
before Taney’s decision they thought they had slavery shut 
cut of all the territory north of 36° 30’. 


333, Presidential Campaign of 1856. 

February 22, 1856, the new Republican Party was formally 
organized at Pittsburgh. On June 17, 1856, it held its first nomi- _ 
nating convention at Philadelphia. and nominated John C.F re- 
mont for President and William L. Dayton of New Jersey for 
Vice President. 

The party did not wish to meddle with slavery in states where 
it already was established, but it declared Congress should pro- 
hibit slavery and polygamy i in the territories. It also demanded 
the immediate admission of Kansas as a free state. | 

The Know-Nothings was a party that had resulted from 
the split in parties in 1854. The Know-Nothings were a dan- 
-gerous sort of crowd, who kept their meetings secret, bound them- 
selves to vote only for Americans. They opposed foreigners 
having any voice in the government, declaring they were too much 
under the control of the Catholic Church. They said the church 
was attempting to gain control of affairs in the United States. 

In 1856, the Know-Nothings and the “Silver Gray” or “Old 
Tine” Whigs united under the name of “Americans.” They 
chose Ex-President Fillmore for President and Andrew J. 
Donelson of Tennessee for Vice President. Though they polled 
874,000 votes, they carried but one state, Maryland. 

The Democrats chose James Buchanan of Pennsylvania for 
President and John C. Breckenridge of Kentucky for Vice Presi- 
dent. Buchanan from the first stood an excellent chance-of 
election. Because of the stand the Republicans had taken, he - 
was sure to receive the undivided support of the solid South. 
He also would receive a good deal of support from the North, 
where a strong Union sentiment existed. Both the Democrats 


and “Americans” blamed the Republicans for selecting Northern | 


men for both of their candidates. 


SECOND QUARTER 57 


Southerners opened declared that the election of Freemont 
would be the end of the Union. Many in the North agreed with 
them. Though the new Republican Party made a good cam- 
paign and polled 1,300,000 votes, with one hundred fourteen 
votes in the electoral college Buchanan won with 1,800,000 popu- 
lar vote, and an electoral vote of one hundred seventy-four. 
Fremont received only about 1,000 votes in all the South. 


334, The Lincoln-Douglas Debates. 


Lincoln was candidate for United States Senator from 
Illinois on the Republican ticket. Douglas was candidate for 
re-election for the same office on the Democratic ticket. “ 

Lincoln, in a speech at Springfield, Illinois, said: “AX 
house divided against itself can not stand.” He also said: 
_ “The nation must become all one thing or all the other’; ea 
this, he meant that the United States could not stand with one 
section holding slaves, and the other section free from slaves, 


and that it had to be all free territory Or all slave territory. ——-~ 


Douglas replied to this and said: “I see that Lincoln 
means to fight until either the North or South is conquered. 


Douglas declared he was in favor of the people deciding for 


themselves whether they wanted slaves or not. 
Lincoln challenged Douglas to debate with him. Douglas 
accepted. These debates were to be held in seven different 


,, towns: Ottawa, Freeport, Jonesboro, Charleston, Galesburg, 


Quincy, and Alton. The questions to be discussed were: 
Popular Sovereignty, Dred Scott Decision, and Extension of 
Slavery in the Territories. The people of Illinois became 
greatly excited over the debates and turned out by the thou- 
sands to hear them. When the votes were counted, Douglas 
was elected Senator, but Lincoln had won for himself a na- 
tional reputation. 

During one of the Lincoln-Douglas denne at Freeport, Il1,, 
Lincoln adroitly asked Douglas whether the people of a terri- 
tory “in any lawful way” could exclude slaves from its bor- 
ders before its admission to the Union. Douglas, not realizing 
the importance of his answer, declared that “the legislature 
of a territory might, by unfriendly legislation, prevent the 
introduction of slavery.” This has been known as the Free- 
port doctrine and virtually repudiated the Dred Scott De- 
cision. This caused Douglas to lose the support of the South 
in the coming Presidential election. 


7 335. John Brown’s Raid. 


About this time occurred an event which showed quite plainly 
that the question of slavery could never be settled by peaceable 


ae 


casero OO 


58 SECOND QUARTER 


means. This was a raid which John Brown made in Virginia on 
the 16th of October, 1859, with a following of twenty men, he 
seized the United States Arsenal at Harper’s Ferry in Virginia. 
He planned to seize the arsenal, arm the slaves, and lead them in 
their fight for freedom. It was a mad, rash plan—and came to 
naught. The slaves did not follow as he thought they would do, 
and Brown was captured and ten of his followers—among them 
his own son—were killed, and Brown was tried and convicted of 


treason under the laws of Virginia~and executed. Some of the » 
Abolitionists in the North regarded Brown as a martyr to the | 


cause of freedom, while his act had aroused the South to righteous 
indignation at this attempt to cause an insurrection among their 
slaves. The South now demanded that Congress pass a sedition 
act to prevent a recurrance of similar outrages. Many moderate 
men in the North condemned Brown and in 1860 the Republican 
Party condemned his uprising as “the gravest of crimes.” 


336. The National Convention of 1860. , 

In the National Convention at Charleston, South Carolina, in 
1860, the Democratic Party divided into a Northern and a South- 
ern wing, or sometimes called the Douglas and the Buchanan 


Wing. 


Lincoln, while making the race in Illinois for United . 


States Senator, attracted not only the attention of Illinois, but 
the attention of the whole nation. Although beaten for Sena- 
tor, by his eminent debates he made himself famous all over. 
the land, and was quite sure to walk on the path that led to 
the White House. 

The political parties that took part in the campaign of 
1860. were: 


The Republican Party, whose pitti declared slavery — 


was wrong, and-it should not be permitted to spread into the 
territories, nominated Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, for Presi- 
dent, and Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine, for Vice President. 
The Democratic Party had split and one wing of it was 
called the Douglas wing, and the other was called the Bu- 
chanan wing. The Douglas wing in their platform declared 


the people of a territory were free to decide for themselves 


whether they wanted slavery or not. Their candidates were: 


Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, for President, and Herschel | 


Johnson, of Georgia, for Vice President. 
The Buchanan wing in their platform declared slavery 


~ 


was right and a benefit to the country, and that it should ex- * 


tend and more slave states should be created. Their candi- 
dates were John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, for President, 
and Joseph Lane, of Oregon, for Vice President. 


SECOND QUARTER 59 


The Constitutional Union Party was made up of rem- 
nants of the old Whig Party, and the Know-Nothing Party. 
In their platform they declared for the union of the states, the 
Constitution, and the enforcement of the law. Their candi- 
dates were John Bell, of Tennessee, for President, and Edward 
Everett, of Massachusetts, for Vice President. 


337. Campaign and Election of President. pet 


The division in the Democratic Party made Lincoln’s election 

almost certain. The South declared openly that if Lincoln were 
elected they would secede. Every Northern state went for 
Lincoln, and thus secured his election. Bell and Everett carried 
Virginia, Kentucky and Tennessee. Douglas carried Missouri. 
and part of New Jersey. The rest of the slave states voted for 
Breckenridge. 

In the election which took place in November, 1860, Lin- 
coln received 180 electoral votes and 1,866,352 of the popular 
votes. Douglas received 12 electoral votes and 1,375,156 of 
the popular votes. Breckenridge received 72 electoral votes 
and 847,763 of the popular votes. Bell received 39 electoral 
votes and 589,581 of the popular votes. 


PROGRESS. 


338. Industrial Life of North and South Compared. 


- The industrial development of the North far excelled 
that of the South. This was due to the great number of labor 
saving machines that had been invented. Most of the great 
inventions favored the development of industries in the North. 
Of course the cotton-gin is an exception to the rule. Some of 
the inventions were useful in both sections, such as the tele- 
graph. In general, however, we may say that the South re- 
‘mained materially unchanged. 

The new inventions of labor-saving machinery and the 

natural advantage of water power caused manufacturing to 
increase, particularly in the New England States. In spite of 
the low duties on cotton and woolen goods, manufacturers of 
these products greatly increased. One authority states that 
the number of spindles had increased from one million in 
1831 to five million at the time of the election of Pierce. Iron 
manufacturers also greatly increased, and Pittsburg became 
the center of this industrv. By this time much ore was ob- 
tained from Michigan. Leather goods and silks were also 
* manufactured in our eastern mills. The North and East were 
fast becoming independent in respect to manufactured goods. 


60 SECOND QUARTER 


The South sent most of her raw cotton to the mills of New 
England and drew her manufactured goods from there or 
from her commerce with England and other countries. 

The South had failed to keep’ pace with the rapid 
development of the North in other ways. By 1840, the 
population of New York City alone was greater than all the im- 
portant towns of the South,—New Orleans, Savannah, Charles- 
ton, Richmond and Petersburg. The South paid no attention to 
developing her natural resources. Her water power was almost 
wholly unutilized. Her mineral resources could have rivaled those 
of Pennsylvania, while in cotton weaving and spinning she could 
have surpassed thé New England states. 

The reasons for all this are directly traceable to slavery. 
While slavery existed emigrants would not go there, nor did 
Northern capital care to invest in enterprises which had to depend 
on slave labor. The negro was not mentally capable of using 
machinery, therefore as long as the institution existed the South 
was destined to remain an agriculture region, and one with a 
more stationary number in population than the North. 


339. Transportation by Railroads and Steamboats. 
When we see the miles and miles of railroad in operation in 


the United States today, we can scarcely believe that the first 


request made to build a line in the United States was refused. 
In 1811, John Stevens applied to the New Jersey Legislature for 
permission to build a line. He was laughed at as a visionary and 
his request refused. Next he applied to the Legislature of New 
York, asking to build a road to Buffalo, to be used instead of the 
proposed canal. Again he met with refusal, and he returned to 
New Jersey. Here he finally secured permission to build a road 
connecting the Delaware and Raritan rivers, the first railroad 
charter in the United States. However, no one was willing to 


back the scheme financially. The idea of traveling twenty miles 
an hour was an idle pipe dream—no one was willing to risk good | 


hard money on such a wild notion. Others tried out the idea and 
here and there short lines were put in operation. In 1826, a New 
York charter was obtained for the Mohawk and Hudson, and 


Massachusetts chartered a short line known as the Granite Rail- — 


way from the Quincy granite quarries. In 1828, the first steam 


locomotive was driven over the Carbondale Road, near Hones- © 


dale, Pennsylvania. It connected Honesdale with coal mines, 
sixteen miles away. 


In 1828, the first great railway system in the United States. 


was begun. This was the Baltimore and Ohio. At first horse 
cars were used, but soon steam was adopted. 


a 


SECOND QUARTER 61 


In the South in 1830, there was opened a line from Charleston 
to Hamburg, over which a steam engine drew a train of five cars 
at the rate of sixteen to twenty-one miles per hour. | 

Once it was demonstrated that the railroad was a success, a 
perfect fever of railroad building swept the country. In thirty 
years, the Atlantic coast had connections with the West by five 
different lines—the Boston and Albany, the New York Central, 
the Erie, the Pennsylvania and the Baltimore and Ohio. There 
were also short lines along the coast connecting Portland, Maine, 
to Wilmington, South Carolina, a distance of more than 1,000 
miles. In the West in 1838, the Michigan Central was built. This 
connected Ann Arbor and Detroit. By 1852, it was possible to go: 
from Boston to Chicago by rail. Five years later, Chicago and 
St. Louis were joined by the. Chicago and Alton Railroad and 
later the B. & O. began sending trains in that city. 

Railroad building was slower in the South, but by 1855 there 
- were lines connecting Savannah and points in Georgia and Mont- 
gomery, Alabama, and Pensacola, Florida. There were also lines: 
from Fredericksburg, Virginia with Wilmington, North Carolina, 
and Norfolk with Raleigh, while a line ran from Charleston 
through eastern Tennessee to the coast. 

Illinois from the first, encouraged railroads and in 1850 made 
huge grants of land to aid them. The first line was from Chicago 
to Cairo. In ten years other roads were built, the Illinois Central, 
the Mississippi Central and other smaller lines which connected 
Chicago with the Gulf of Mexico. 

After the invention of the steamboat by Fulton, the trans- 
portation on the western rivers was greatly increased. The 
steamboat was almost immediately used on the Ohio and the 
Mississippi. Loads of grain and various products were car- 
ried down to river ports and to New Orleans. It was a great 
factor in the settlement of the West. 

It was a great improvement over the earlier methods of 
travel, and gave a handy means of carrying freight from one 
point to another, but it had two disadvantages, it was a slow 
means of travel, and in winter many waterways were ice choked. 
It was to meet the demand for a better means of travel that rail- 
roads were built throughout the United States. 


340. Labor Saving Machinery—Sewing Machine, Reaper and 
Telegraph. 


_ The sewing machine was invented in 1846, by Elias Howe. 
The new invention was at once received with great enthusiasm 
and soon came into general use. 

- One of the greatest inventions of the time was that of the 
reaper by Cyrus McCormick in 1831. Up to the time of this 


62 : SECOND QUARTER 


invention, the farmer used the scythe to cut his grain. The 
new machine made possible larger crops and so reduced the 
price of flour and bread. It was, however, almost ten years 
before one of the machines could be sold, because at first 
people had little confidence in it. Many ‘people now ‘con- 
sider the reaper the greatest of inventions. It has made pos- 
sible the great wheat fields of the Middle West and the Far 
West. 

The telegraph was invented by Samuel F. B. Morse in 1832. 
At first it was not a success for it would carry a message 
only a short distance, finally after many trials he invented 
a relay magnet that would catch the sound and send it on. 
Morse received an appropriation of $30,000 from Congress to 
build a line between Baltimore and Washington. In 1844 
with this money from Congress and with what he had, the 
line was built; it was about forty miles long, and the first mes- 
sage sent over it was, “What hath God wrought.” 

The telegraph is very important to us especially in war 
times, for commands can be sent so rapidly to armies. Long 
lines of railroads can also be operated from one office. It 


does much to unite the people of the different sections opthe -- 


country. 


341. Social Progress. 


Perhaps no other one factor has had more to do with social 
progress in the United States than the development of the steam ~ 
engine. New machinery, steam driven, worked rapid changes in 
the old social order. Every act of life was altered. Travel was 
by train or steamboat, buying, selling and manufacturing was 
taken out-of the home and centered in stores and factories. Huge 
cities sprang up, mills with their teeming thousands of workers 
added new industrial problems. Women became wage earners as 
well as men, and even children went to work in factories and 
mills. All the work so long done by the pioneer woman was now 
done by machinery in huge factories. From this sprang the fac- 
tory system with all its attendant laws and regulations, and cul-_ 
minating today in the numerous labor troubles that have ip our 
industrial life. 


342. Money and Banking. 


In 1857, a heavy business failure occurred in Cincinnati. This 
started a general panic, and soon the panic of 1837 was being re- 
peated. Railroads could not meet the interest on their bonds; 
banks and factories closed. ‘The root of the whole trouble lay in 
the discovery of gold in California. The gold coming in from the 
new region had caused everyone to overestimate the country’s 


SECOND QUARTER 63 


needs, hence more railroad was built than needed, more goods 
were manufactured than could be sold, and more money bors, 
rowed than could be repaid. The South declared it was the 
fault*of the North because she refused to use slave labor, while 
the North pointed out that the South was as bad off as the North. 
A period of waiting and rest followed, and when once more the 
demand equalled the supply, business was resumed. 


343, Immigration. 


In 1846-47; a terrible famine occurred in Ireland. This 
led thousands of her people to come to America, where they 
could have a chance to improve their condition. 

_ About this time also large numbers of Germans came 
over. They belonged to the Liberal party in-Germany. In 
1848, they had made an effort to put through certain demo- 
cratic reforms, including a united Germany and a parliament 
to be elected by direct popular vote. The movement failed 
and to escape punishment many of them emigrated from their 
country. The United States gained many valuable citizens 
through this movement. 

The number of emmigrants rose from 1,000,000 per year 
to nearly 4,000,000. Of course this rate was not maintained 
every year. 

In 1850 there were about 100,000 German born inhabitants 
in Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Iowa. 


344, Building Farms in the West. 


The West was largely an agricultural section. The fer- 
tile lands of Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and other states 
early drew people westward. The invention of the reaper 
made possible the raising of wheat on a large scale and the 
excellent transportation facilities of the river, canals, and rail- 
roads led to the raising of large crops of corn, wheat, and 
cattle. Illinois soon became known as a great corn producing 
state, and this name it has since held. 

In 1789, the Mississippi River had been our western boun- 
dary. By 1840, we had reached the Pacific Ocean, with an in- 
crease in our holdings from 800,000 square miles to over 
3,000,000 besides to the thirteen states had been added twenty 
more together with immense territories. Throughout the Central 
West and Far West, vast tracts of land were coming under culti- 
vation, until before-long, the United States was to take her place 
as one of the chief graneries of the world. 


345, The Iron Industry. 


One of the greatest aids to the new industrial era were the 
immense deposits of coal and iron in Pennsylvania. In Revolu- 


64 SECOND QUARTER 


tionary times, nearly every little colony had had its iron forge, 

w@yhere charcoal was used to melt the metal. Later, soft coal was 

Ooch: from England for this purpose, but during the War of 
1812 when we were forced to depend on our own resources, the 
hard coal of Pennsylvania was tried out successfully. With this . 
proven successful, Pennsylvania immediately became the center 
of the iron and steel industry in the United States. In 1790, a 
smelting furnace was erected at Youghiogheny, Pennsylvania , 
where iron ore had been discovered. Within five years Fayette 
County boasted of five furnaces and six forges, while rolling mills 
and steel mills soon followed. Pittsburgh, which had been a 
town of four hundred when the Declaration of Independence was 
made, became one of our large cities, while the valleys of the 
Monongahela and Allegheny were pitted and dotted with mines 
and ‘mills. 


346. Education. 


The University of Michigan was opened very modestly in 
1841. The greatest step made in education during this period was © 
the opening of several schools of standing to women students. 
In 1833, Oberlin College opened its doors to women. In 1853, 
Horace Mann was made President of Antioch College in Ohio, 
and opened its courses to women students. By 1860 there were 
four or five colleges of reputable standing which admitted women, » 
but the state colleges, supported by taxation, were still oo to 
women. 


SECESSION BRINGS WAR, 


347. A State’s Right to Secede Questioned. 


The South held that a state had a right to secede because: — 
1. Each colony by the Declaration of Independence had 
become a separate free state. 
2. That each state under the Articles on Confederation 
retained its “sovereignty, freedom, and independence.” | 
Bde VP rGary, Ole. oay/nad acknowledged the freedom 
‘and sovereignty of the separate states. 
4, When the Constitution had been adopted, a compact | 


had been formed, with the General Government merely as 


the common agent of the sovereign states. 

5. That when a compact is formed, if one of the parties 
fails to fulfill their part of the agreement, the other is released . 
from obligation. 

In reply to these, Lincoln representing the Northern view, 
held that the Union was older than the Constitution and that 
the Declaration of Independence and the Articles of Con- 


SECOND QUARTER 65 


federation had merely strengthened it. He also held that 
while perpetuity was not expressed, it was certainly implied 
by the Constitution. He declared that if the Constitution 
was a mere compact, to be ended it must be broken by all the 
parties making it, and for this reason, no state could lawfully 
withdraw from the Union. 


348. Secession Threatened on Previous Occasions. 


Strangely enough, one of the first threats heard of secession 
from the Union was made by a Northern state—Massachusetts, 
when Louisiana was admitted to the Union in 1812. It declared 
. to admit Louisiana would virtually dissolve the Union. Josiah 
Quincy was one of the most bitter against the admission. The 
New England states wished to preserve their political power 
intact and they saw if all the Louisiana Territory was to come in 
there would be a gradual but certain shifting of political power 
to the South and West. 

' At that time most people looked upon the Constitution as a 
compact and the Union as a partnership which could be dissolved 
at any time its members saw fit. This notion persisted and even 
when Clay helped pass the Compromise of 1820, there was a de- 
cided note in favor of secession from various quarters. Again 
the Wilmot Proviso caused a threat of secession, and again the 
break was averted. During the campaign of 1856 again rose the 
cry of secession. Southerners declared if Fremont was elected, 
the Union would be dissolved. The desire to perpetuate the 
Union led many to vote for Buchanan and he was elected. Once 
_ more the threatened break was prevented. In the campaign of 
1860 .the threat of secession was again made. The cotton states 
said if Lincolri was elected they would secede. But they had 
made the threat so often it no longer carried its accustomed 
weight. The North declared the South made the threat each 
time to get its way and the Republican Party resolved to stand 
on its principles and by its candidates, and let the South ce as it 
saw fit about seceding. 


Be South Carolina Secedes from the Union. 


The treat made by the South to secede if Lincoln were elected 
was no idle one as the North soon saw. Lincoln’s election took 
place in November, 1860, by the Republican party—a party 
pledged to shut out slavery from the territories.. The whole 
South rose as a state and declared it would never be ruled by a 
“black Republican” president. The leader in this movement was 
South Carolina. This state believed that the election of Lincoln 
meant the ultimate liberation of all the slaves. This was a rash 
mistake for the North at that time had no such radical plans, but 


66 SECOND QUARTER 


South Carolina could not be persuaded otherwise. Perhaps the 
real reason for their uneasiness was not so much the freeing of 
their slaves, as the loss of prestige and power which they forsaw. 
The free states now had six more senators and fifty-seven more 
representatives than the slave states had in Congress, ‘and they 
knew they would be outvoted on every question that might arise. 

Therefore, in December, 1860, a meeting was called and met 
in Charleston, where it voted that the Union which had heretofore 
existed between the state of South Carolina and the other states 
known as the United States of America was now dissolved. The 
leaders of the movement declared such action had not been taken 
hastily or unadvisedly but was the result of many years considera- 
tion. Such an action could not but lead to serious results—how 
serious was then little dreamed of, but it was welcomed in the 
streets of Charleston by-loud aclaim, by the firing of salutes, and 
expressions of joy and approval on all sides. The Governor of 
South Carolina now declared his satisfaction in that South Caro- 
lina had at last become a free and independent state. 


350. Secession Spreads, 


The alleged causes for secession were two. The first 
was the passage of the “Personal Liberty Bills’ by many of 
the Northern states during the twenty years preceding. They 
were intended to interefere with the operation ofthe fugitive 
slave laws passed by Congress. Over twenty States had 
passed such laws, and the South looked upon them as attempts 
to nullify the acts of Congress. The South, with its doctrine 
of state rights, looked upon the Constitution as a compact or 
agreement between the different states, and claimed that the 
North were by these acts violating their compact. 3 

The other reason given by the South was the exclusion 
of slavery from the territories, but they had no grounds what- 
ever to justify this assertion; for the Supreme Court had, in 
the Dred Scott case, given an opinion which sustained all the 
claims of the South and would overrule any tendency of Con- 
gress to pass laws restricting slavery in the territories. For. 
this opinion held that slaves are not persons, but property, 
and that any owner had the same right to take them into the 
territories as he had with regard to other property. The 
Supreme Court, because of changes in its personnel, was now 
stronger for that principle than it was in 185%. Then even if 
Congress had had the power to keep slavery from the terri- 
tories, it did not have the necessary majority for both Houses 
were Democratic. 

The real cause for secession was the ever-widening breach 
between the North and South over the slavery question. The 


SECOND QUARTER | 67 


people of the South had grown up with slavery; it was pro- 
fitable; the present generation felt little responsibility ‘for its 
existence; and most of them thought it was right, or at least 
the only suitable condition of the negro. In the Northern 
states where slavery was unprofitable, people had more and 
more become convinced that it was wrong, a blot upon the 
nation, and wholly out of place in a democracy. With every 
renewal of the agitation these feelings became more intense 
on both sides, especially at the South. 

Before March 4, 1861, the day of the inauguration of Lin- 
coln, Mississippi, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Texas and Louisiana 
had followed the example of South Carolina. Each gave the same 
reason for their action—slavery. South Carolina had set up her 
state government under the name of an independent Common- 
wealth, and on the day following her act of secession, the Charles- 
ton papers gave news items from the other states under the head 
of “Foreign News.” 


351. A Confederacy Formed—Its Constitution! 


However much faith the leaders might have in the justice of - 
their cause, they felt some doubt as to how their act might be re- 
ceived by the United States. They did not know whether it would 
attempt to force them to stay in the Union, would permit them to 
form an independent government, or whether their action would 
be completely ignored. Therefore, they decided that it would be 
better to take steps to form some sort of union among the seced- 
ing states, and thus be prepared to meet whatever emergency 
night arise. Therefore, a meeting was held in Montgomery, 
Alabama in February, 1861, to form a Union. The convention 
met, and a constitution like in many ways that of the United 
States was drafted. On two questions however, it was most 
specific—these were slavery and state rights. Each state was 
declared free, sovereign, and independent. Nor did it like the 
constitution of 1787, dodge the issue of slavery. It mentioned 
the institution of slavery and made provisions for it and its per- 
petuation in the states and territories of the confederacy. 

The name Confederate States of America had been adopted 
as the name for the new league, and instead of the stars and 
stripes its flag was the the stars and bars. 

Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected President. He 
was a man of great courage and ability of high order. He had 
served throughout the Mexican war and had held various civil 
offices. He was a Southerner of the rankest sort, and stood for 
all the beliefs and principles for which the South was contending 
at this time. He was a born leader and the South with confidence 


68 SECOND QUARTER 


and trust looked to him as a guide in the troublesome times which 
might lie before them. Their confidence was by no means mis- 
placed. 

The United States Constitution was the model used for 
the Confederate Constitution with the following differences: 
1. Expressed the sovereignty of the individual state. 

2. Prohibited protective tariffs. 

3. Confirmed slaves as property. 

4. Provided for means to protect slave property in all 
new territory. 

5. The President was elected for one term of six years, but 
was ineligible for second term. 

6. Cabinet members could not vote, but might debate 
in Congress. 

7. The President was given power to veto individual items 
of appropriation bills. 

Alexander H. Stevens was elected Vice President of the 
Confederacy, and steps were taken to sever all connection between 
the United States and the seceding states. Southern congressmen 
resigned their seats in the United States Congress. All federal 
employees, revenue collectors, judges and other employees re- 
signed. Forts and arsenals were seized by the Confederates, and 
the stars and stripes were hauled down throughout the whole 
seven seceding states. 


352. The Winter of 1860-61 in Washington. 


Such prompt action of the South was most surprising to the 
North. The Southern threat to secede had not been taken seri- 
ously by many in the North. Many now regretted voting for 
Lincoln, feeling as many do who have been carried away on some. 
wave of rash enthusiasm that they would gladly undo the harm 
they had helped bring about. This element was the first to make 
overtures to the South, to offer concessions, and to do all in their 
power to still preserve the Union. The more radical element 
openly expressed their joy and relief to be free from the taint of 
union with slave owning states. At first President Buchanan did 
nothing. He seemed unable or unwilling to cope with the situa- 
tion. Perhaps, he felt that his had not been the responsibility of 
bringing on the castrophe, therefore, it was not his problem to 
settle. However, he did maintain that South Carolina‘had been 
justified in seceding. He declared the anti-slavery men of the © 
North had been to blame for all the trouble. He held however, 
that South Carolina had no constitutional right to secede, but if 
she did, the general government had no power to force her back. 
As Northern men came into his cabinet to fill the places resigned 
by Southerners, Buchanan began to take a firmer stand. If back 


SECOND QUARTER 69 


bone was lacking in the Presidential chair, it wasn’t in that of: 
the Secretary of Treasury, then occupied by General Dix. The 
message he sent to New Orleans was this, “If any man attempts 
to haul down the United States flag, shoot him on the spot.” 

In January 9, 1861, Buchanan tried to send provisions 
through to Fort Sumter by the steamer, “Star of the West.” But 
at Charleston Harbor, the vessel was fired upon, and forced to 
turn back. This was the first real attack on Federal authority 
and is usually considered as the first act of war on the part 
of the Confederacy. 

All kinds and sorts of schemes were now advocated to bring 
the rebellious states back into the Union. The most feasible 
one, and perhaps the best known was the Crittenden Compro- 
mise proposed by Senator Crittenden of Kentucky. This pro- 
vided that the old division of 36° 30’ should be restored with 
slavery prohibited north, and protected south of this line. There 
were plans made in the compromise whereby fugitive slaves not 
returned to their masters should be paid for by the national 
government. Slavery was to be retained in the District of 
Columbia, and that the Constitution of the United States be so 
amended that Congress could never interfere with Slavery in 
the Slave states. It also agreed that all new states admitted to 
the Union should say as to whether they were to be free of slave. 

But the Crittenden plan was rejected by the Republicans. 
At Washington, a Peace Congress proposed a similar plan 

_ which met with a like fate. Lincoln and the Republicans balked 

at the notion of any further extension of Slavery. 
*» Then the 13th Amendment to the Constitution was agreed 
; upon, and approved by Lincoln. It declared that Congress 
should never have the right to abolish or interfere with slavery 
in any state in the Union. It had been passed by the necessary 
two-thirds vote when the first clash of the war came. e % 

Had the South been but a bit more patient how different 
would have been the 13th Amendment to our Constitution. As 
voted, it would have secured ‘slavery in the southern states free 
from ‘congressional interference. As it was when the 13th amend-" 
ment was finally added; it abolished BSS from every state in . 
the United States. Kat Rta: 


. 853. The President’s Attitude Toward Bi asion, 


At first, Buchanan did not seem to know what stand to 
take. He perhaps felt that action in the matter should be left 
to Lincoln, whose election had. precipitated the trouble. Buchanan 
openly denounced the North as the cause of the whole affair. 
He declared South Carolina had room to feel aggrieved and that 
while he did not believe she had the constitutional right to 


RE pA P TI ty, 


70 SECOND QUARTER 


secede, if she did he did not see how the Union could force her 
back into the United States. One can readily see how Buchanan 
felt. He did not choose to step in and clean up dirty work he | 
had been in no way responsible for. Some felt it was merely 
lack of courage, others lack of conviction. However, when cer- 
tain of his cabinet resigned, and returned to the South, he filled 
the vacancies with Northerners who succeeded into infusing 
into the wavering President a measure of determination and he 
took steps to protect Federal property in the South, as well as 
Federal employees there at that time. His attempt to send 
provisions to Fort Sumter led to the bombarding of the vessel, 
an act which many hold to be the first hostile move of the Con- 
federacy against the United States. 


354. Compromise Measures. 


The Crittenden Compromise was the only measure intro- 
duced that offered any hope of conciliating the South, yet it 
failed. Today, looking back over the situation as it existed at 
that time, we cannot but be surprised that the North was willing 
to make overtures of any sort to the seceding South. Yet it did, 
and no doubt the majority of the Northern votes would have 
been for the compromise as proposed by Senator Crittenden of 
Kentucky. The followers of the Douglas bill, and Edward 
Everett who led the Constitutional Union Party and who wished 
to disregard. the slavery question entirely, would surely have 
voted for it, while many who had supported Lincoln were now 
frightened at the result of the election. The vast majority were 
ready for any measure that would preserve the Union. Yet 
many leaders of the North did not deny the South’s right to 
secede if it so wished. Wendell Phillips said the South had 
the right to form a separate government if it saw fit to do so, 
while Horace Greeley urged that the “erring sisters,” as he called 
the seceding states, be allowed to go in peace. Many people 
believed that the Union should not be preserved by force; others 
now realized compromise was useless, and urged that every means 
should be used to prevent the South from destroying the Union. 
They argued that Lincoln had been elected fairly, therefore, 
should be supported. Under his calm leadership, the people 
began to recover from their panic and to demand that the au- 
thority of the Federal government be recognized, and steps be 
slag to force the ae either to recognize it or to openly 

ely it. 


355, Activity of the Secessionists. 


While all the compromise activity was going on in the North 
the South was far from idle. Three days after it was known 


SECOND QUARTER 71 


that Lincoln was elected, a convention was called of the people 
of South Carolina. December 17, 1860 it met, and after three 
days debate passed an ordinance declaring that a Union no 
longer existed between South Carolina and the states known as 
the United States. South Carolina was declared a common- 
wealth. 

Within six weeks, other states had followed the example 
and Florida, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana and Texas 
had joined South Carolina in secession. In February, 1861, dele- 
gates from these states met in Montgomery, Alabama, established 
a Provisional Government which they called the Confederate 
' States of America. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected 
President and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, Vice Presi- 
dent of the new confederacy. Hundreds of Southerners resigned 
from the employ of the Federal government and returned to the 
South to take their place in the activities of the seceding states. 
All the mints, forts, arsenals, and other government property in 
the seceding states were seized by the Confederacy. By March 
1, 1861, there were but two forts—Fort Sumter at Charleston, 
and Fort Pickens at Pensacola—left in possession of the United 
States in all the South. 

The Stars and Stripes were hauled down, and ‘the Stans 
and Bars run up in their place throughout the seven states. 

While the South was busy organizing into a more or less 
definite union, she committed no overt act which could be con- 
strued as open warfare. The Confederate government sent am- 
_bassadors to Washington asking Lincoln to give them peaceable 
possession. of the two forts not yet in their possession. Of 
course, Lincoln could not receive these men, for by doing so he 
would have recognized the existence of the Confederacy. 

By the first of April, Major Anderson who was ‘in com- 
mand of Fort Sumter was so short of food he sent an appeal to 
Lincoln for help. The President responded by sending a mes- 
sage to South Carolina that he was going to send aid to Anderson. 
When Jefferson Davis heard the report, he called a council to 
decide what action should be taken. Some argued for, some 
against, allowing the supplies to be sent. Some warned Davis 
that to refuse to all the supplies, was stirring up a hornet’s nest, 
but he finally agreed that Fort Sumter should be taken by force. 
Anderson steadily refused to acceed to General Beauregard’s 
demand to give up the garrison, and on April 12, 1861 the bom- 
bardment of Ft. Sumter began. This was the opening gun of 
the Civil War, and the beginning of a strife that dragged out 
its length four weary years. 


= 


72 SECOND QUARTER 


356, From Springfield to Washington. 


In November, 1860, Lincoln had been elected President a 
the United States by the votes of the Republican Party. The 
time between that and February, 1861, when Lincoln left Spring- 
field, Illinois, his home town, for the capital was filled with 
stirring events and epoch making deeds. In February, when 
Lincoln bid goodby to the people of Springfield, he voiced his 
sorrow at parting. Perhaps his clear outlook into the future 
showed him some of the difficulties and dangers that lay before 
him. In his farewell speech, he spoke of the burdens he was about 
to assume, and asked their prayers for aid and guidance in the 
years before him. 

When his train drew from the depot, the heart prayers 
and good wishes of the people of Illinois went with him. His 
eastward trip was interrupted here and there by stops at towns 
where he spoke to the people, assuring them of his devotion to. 
the Union and the determination to protect and maintain it with- 
out force of arms if possible. But grim warnings of danger had 
been heard. Threats were made, that Lincoln would never live 
to take the oath of office, hence the last lap of the journey ‘was 
taken secretly at night by a special train. 

His entry into Washington seemed prophetic of his de- 
parture from there some five years later when laid low by an 
assassin’s bullet, he was-carried by reverent hands back to his 
old home town and his final resting place. — 


357. The Inauguration of Mr. Lincoln. 


On March 4, 1861, Abraham Lincoln standing on the capitol 
steps at Washington was sworn in as President of the United 
States. The Chief Justice administering the oath was the one 
who handed down the famous Dred Scott Decision, while 
Douglas, Lincoln’s old time political rival, stood near by holding 
the President’s hat; Lincoln’s inaugural speech was a plea for 
peace. He insisted the North and South must not be enemies. He 
declared he had just taken the oath to preserve and defend the 
constitution and this oath he intended to keep at any cost, but 
he had no intention to meddle with slavery, or to interfer ‘with 
it in any state where it then existed. He said it was his opinion 
that no state could leave the Union, but declared he would hold — 
forts, arsenals, and other Union property that might be seized 
by the seceding Southern States. : 

He declared he believed he had no lawful right to tnteffere 
with slavery and he certainly had no wish to. do so, in any state 
where it already was in force. His principle was—no further 
extension of slavery, and on this belief he was not willing to _ 


SECOND QUARTER 78 


‘ 


trespass by compromises of any sort. He refused to recognize 
that the Union had been broken. He declared if the South was 
willing to fight rather than to see the Union remain unbroken 
and without slavery, he was willing to accept war rather than see 
the Union perish. 

At the time of Lincoln’s nomination, much seemed to 
depend upon the character of the two men—Jefferson Davis, the 
_ President of the Confederacy and Lincoln, President of the 
- United States. Had it only been possible for those two men 
to adjust their belief to the other’s satisfaction, each might have 
led their followers to their way of thinking and thus the long 
exhausting struggle been averted. 

Davis was not unwilling to compromise. His only demand 
that Lincoln could and would not meet was for the extension 
of slavery in the territories. Failing in this, then Davis asked 
for a peaceful parting of the ways. Again Lincoln could see no 
way but refusal; Jefferson replied that then there was no way 
for the South but to trust in God and vindicate the right as they 
saw best. Lincoln replied that the North no more wished war 
than the South, but that the latter would make war rather than 
let the nation survive, while the North would make it rather 
than let the Nation perish. 

Lincoln made four points very plain in his inaugural ad- 
dress, They were :— 

1. The Union antedated the Constitution and Independence. 

2. The signers of the Declaration of Independence intended 
- the Union to be perpetual. 

3. That the individual states had pledged themselves to 
preserve it. 

: 4. That no individual state had any right to break the Union 

by withdrawing from it. 

While Lincoln was firm in his stand in his inaugural ad- 
dress, he adopted no provocative measures, and leaders in both 
sides began to hope for some peaceable solution of the difficulty. 
The battle of words and wills might have gone on and in 
the end came to naught, had not the need arisen to aid the 
Union commander of the fort. at Fort Sumter, an island fort in 
the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina. 


358. Firing on Ft. Sumter, April 14, 1861. 


Major Anderson with a garrison of about eighty-five men 
held Fort Sumter in Charleston harbor. President Lincoln 
thought that he was in need of more men and supplies. When 
the Confederate force under P. G. T. Beauregard heard that 
the supplies were to be sent, they opened fire on Fort Sumter. 

Major Anderson with his eighty-five men held the fort against 


aineiinmmenammmane ee 


74 SECOND QUARTER 


the Confederates with seven thousand until his ammunition 
was nearly gone, and after fighting thirty-six hours he was 
compelled to surrender. No person was killed on either side. 
A war spirit spread over the country. The Confederates had 
opened the war by firing on the United States flag. 

When the question had come up in the Confederate cabinet as 
to whether Fort Sumter should be fired upon, the Secretary of 
State had urged delay. He argued that to fire upon the fort 
would bring on a civil war, the like of which the world had never 
seen. He said the South would be striking a hornets nest, and 
legions then quiet would swarm out and sting the South to death. 
Later events showed how true were his words. 

In spite of all warnings, Davis ordered Beauregard not to ~ 
allow any supplies or reinforcements to enter the fort, and to 
order the surrender and if it refused to bombard it till it did. For 
thirty-four hours Major Anderson persisted in his refusal 
to surrender, until the fort was but a mass of battered ruins. 
There was no food but some pork left, and Anderson was com- 
pelled to take down his flag and hand over the position. Four 
years later the same battle-torn flag was again hoisted over the 
fort. There was no blood shed on either side—at least no one 
was killed. This battle has been sometimes referred to as the 
‘battle of seventy against.seven thousand. . 

The North needed but this act’on the part of the South to 
be united as one. The flag had been fired upon, and while be- 
fore many had advised delay, caution, and compromise, now the 
people arose as one to defend the flag and the Union it 
represented. 


359. A Great Blunder. 


The firing on Fort Sumter was one of the most stupid 
blunders in history. Had this overt act been delayed even a 
short while, there is no doubt the whole period of Civil War 
might have been averted. The South could have kept her 
slaves undisturbed, and property and life would have been 
spared to thousands for Congress had already passed by the 
necessary two-thirds vote, a 13th Amendment to the Constitu- 
tion. This amendment said that Congress should never be given 
the right to interfere with slavery in any of the states of the 
Union, where it then existed. The amendment was awaiting the — 
ratification of the States when the Confederates fired upon Fort 
Sumter. 

We can judge how great a blunder this rash act was when 
we compare the 13th amendment as passed by Congress at this - 
time and the 13th amendment which was finally adopted. The 
amendment made first, guaranteed that slavery should never be 


SECOND QUARTER 3 1b 


interfered with by Congress. The final 13th amendment which 
was finally adopted four years later, liberated every slave in the 
United States. 


~ 360. The War Governors. 


Among the name of famous war governors of this period 
that of Richard Yates, Governor. of Illinois, stands out most 
prominently. 

January 14, 1861, Richard Yates was s inaugurated as Gover- 
nor of Illinois. His ‘inaugural address dwelt largely upon the 
question of the right to secession, and insisted upon the in- 
dissolubility of the government. All his energy and _ ability 
during his four years in office was directed to the one effort— 
that of saving the Union. He was one of the few Northern men 
who realized from the first, the enormity of the coming conflict. 
- He early advised President Lincoln to free the slaves and put 
them to work to help in the struggle for their freedom. When 
he retired from his arduous office, it was with the respect and 
honor of those whom he had served, 

When in April, 1861, Lincoln issued a call for volune 
Governor Yates immediately called a special session of the 
Legislature, “which convened April 23. The quota of Illinois 
was six regiments of militia, for so the Secretary of War had 
notified the Governor and for the organization and equipment of 
these regiments, immediate steps were taken. A war fund of’ 
$2,000,000 was created and other necessary steps taken. 

- During the four years of Yates’ term, time after time, he 
_ faced hostile majorities in both houses, but filled with a lofty 
patriotism, he never swerved from what he held his duty. Per- 
haps none called for a greater courage than that which called 
him to avail himself of his constitutional prerogative and pro- 
rogue the legislature on June 10, 1863. There had been some 
who had declared Lincoln an usurper and the was barbarous, 
and were attempting to block the President’s war plan in his 
own home state. But Yates, courageous as he was patriotic, 
ended the attempt almost as soon as it began. 

Later Yates became United States Senator and after the 
expiration of his term, retired to private life. November 27, 
1873, he died very suddenly in St. Louis as he was returning 
to his home from Arkansas. He had been sent to this state by 
President Grant to inspect a land subsidy railroad, as a United 
States Commissioner, 

From the time South Carolina seceded, the Southern element 
began scheming to get Missouri pledged to the Southern states. 
However, a majority of the state legislature were in favor of 
the Union and opposed to secession. 


76 SECOND QUARTER 


But Governor Claiborne F. Jackson was in full accord with 
the schemes of the South and secession. In the beginning he 
was. recognized as a leader who would attempt to take his state 
from the Union, but as the conflict became more certain he 
talked neutrality. Perhaps he realized how disastrous to his 
state any active part in the contest would be. But since he had 
in the beginning taken his stand for secession, the Union element 
placed little or no confidence in his later stand. As the majority 
of his legislature was against secession he could do little for it, 
yet as commander of the militia, he began to organize it, and 
clearly in the interest of the secession movement. He declared 
it was organized merely for home protection and was called the 
Home Guard. But when stores and arsenals began to be seized 
throughout the South, the secessionists in Missouri urged the 
taking of the stores at Liberty and at St. Louis. But Union 
men, among them Frank P. Blair, were on watch-at St. Louis 
and kept the government advised of all that was happening. 
Governor Jackson now began receiving supplies from Southern 
points to equip his militia; the oath they took was one of 
obedience to him alone, hence action on the part of the United 
States was necessary. General Lyon was put in command of 
the Union forces. Finally, the open break came and open fight- 
ing took place at various places in Missouri. The contest was 
carried into Kansas and late into Arkansas, all of which will 
be discussed in later topics. | 

Lincoln was especially anxious that Missouri should be 
saved to the Union for several reasons. It gave the North a 
much greater open stretch of the Mississippi River and saved 
Illinois from attack from the River. 3 

Another state Lincoln was anxious to save was Kentucky. 
Jefferson Davis did all in his power to secure Kentucky for the 
Confederacy, for the first defensive line would have been formed 
by the Ohio River. But there was a strong Union sentiment 
in this state, especially the eastern part. Yet so evenly was senti- 
ment divided in many cases that Kentucky families divided; part | 
of the sons going to the Union and part to the Confederate ~ 
army. | 
Beriah Magoffin was governor and was a rabid secession-— 
ist, and openly defied Lincoln by refusing to send Kentucky’s 
first quota of troops when called for. But the legislature took a 
neutral stand and resolved ‘that this state and the citizens thereof 
should take no part in the Civil War now being waged except as 
mediators and friends of the belligent parties; and that Ken- 
tucky should during the contest, occupy the position of strict 
neutrality.” 


SECOND QUARTER | 77 


~ 


For a short time the state made a sincere attempt to keep her 
word, but events that came up daily, soon showed her how im- 
possible this was going to become. 

The State Guard, about. 15,000 men, was largely in command 
of secessionist officers. Some left for Tennessee, some for Ohio 
—one to join the Confederate army, the other to join the Union. 
But a stronger feeling against secession began to develope. This 
was due largely to the tone taken by Confederate leaders who 
laughed to scorn the notion of Kentucky’s neutrality. On Sep- 
tember 3, they invaded the state and took up a strong position 
at Columbus, about twenty miles below Cairo, Illinois. Another 
force under General Zollicoffer came from Eastern Tennessee 
and threatened the eastern part of the state. These two move- 
ments showed that the Confederates had determined to sieze 
the state by force, and now all thoughts of neutrality ended. The 
Stars and Strips were hoisted over the capitol at Frankfort, and 
the legislature told Governor Magoffin that he must order the 
confederate troops to withdraw immediately. The Governor 
vetoed this resolution, and it was passed over his veto. Thus 
Kentucky definitely lined up with the Union cause, 

Maryland was another state that Lincoln was determined 
if possible to save for the Union cause. Had the border states 
gone to the Confederacy, the result might have been otherwise 
than it was. In April, 1861, the attitude of Maryland was threat- 
ening. But thanks to the unfailing loyalty of Governor Hicks, 
it was saved to the Union. Had Maryland gone to the South, 
perhaps the first task of the North would have been to regain 
the Federal Capitol. April 19, Baltimore was in the hands of.a 
secessionist mob, even the Governor though loyal to the Union 
had to give way before it. Late at night the Mayor, Mr. Brown, 
the Police Marshall, Mr. Kane, and the police commissioners held 
a meeting and decided on the destruction of all bridges between 
Baltimore and the North. By daylight three bridges on the 
Philadelphia line and three on the Harrisburg line had been 
burned by their orders. This was an open act of treason against 
the Government. The police commissioners tried to say Gover- 
nor Hicks had ordered it, but this he denied. 

The following day Hicks telegraphed to Washington that 
since the secessionists held sway, it seemed best for the time 
being to refuse the troops Lincoin had asked for. On the 20th, 
a committee of men from Baltimore appeared in Washington 
asking Lincoln not to send any more troops through Baltimore. 
This was signed by Mayor Brown and Governor Hicks. But a way 
was found out of the dilema when Felton and Thompson, presi- 
dents of the Philadelphia and Wilmington and the Pennsylvania 
Central Railroads, rerouted the trains to Perryville thence by 


_ struggle. 


Pago 
78 SECOND QUARTER 


water to Annapolis, and then by rail to Washington. When 
the committee arrived in Washington asking that troops not be 
sent through Baltimore, Lincoln said he’d agree to this if no 
obstacles were placed in their way of going by Perryville. If 
there were, he’d order the troops to come by whatever way they 
wished, and to come prepared to fight their way through if 
necessary. About this time secessionists seized and cut the tele- 
graphic communication to the North from Washington, This 
act so incensed Lincoln that he ordered the troops to come 


_through Maryland by force if necessary. The Union movement. - 


was so rapid that by the 4th day of May, Baltimore was sur- © 
rounded by a Union army and cut off from the rest of the’ 
world. Governor Hicks now again declared his attachment to 


the Union cause, and dismissed the militia gathered in Baltimore. . 


The burnt bridges were rebuilt, telegraph communication re- 
sumed, and the legislature gave up its attempts at secession. 
On the 13th, General Butler took possession of the city and 


_on the 14th the Governor issued the call for troops: he had 
"previously refused. 


In Indiana, Oliver Morton was Governor, while oe 
Johnson was “made Military Governor of Tennessee during the 
war. Morton was a sturdy supported of Lincoln during all the 


Governor Harris was the elected Governor of Tennessee at 


J the outbreak of the war. 


Mr. Dennison was Governor of Ohio, and early in the 
struggle placed Geo. B. McClellan as commMander-in-chief of the 
Ohio militia. 

Ellis was Governor of North Carolina and a strong 
secessionist. On April 20, he seized the United States mint at 
Charlotte and on the 22nd the United States arsenal at Fayette- 
ville. On the 26th he called a session of the Legislature to pass 
a secession ordinance. 

Governor Sam Houston was the War Governor of Texas: 
He from the first refused to permit a convention to be called to 
consider the question of secession, hence no blame can be at- 
tached to him for the disgraceful way Texas acted during the 
first few months of the trouble. The secessionists, when Houston 
refused to do so, called a meeting of the Legislature, and voted_ 
to join the C onfederacy, yet their representatives were not re- 
called from Washington and for over a month, Texas had 
representatives both to the Union in Washington and to the 
Confederacy at Montgomery. Those at Washington were as 
ardent secessionists as those in Montgomery, and through them, . 
the Confederate government was kept informed of all that was 
taking place in the Northern capitol. 


SECOND QUARTER . 79 


Mr. Gist was Governor of South Carolina when it seceded, 
but when it was reorganized as a separate commonwealth, 
Francis W. Pickens was elected Governor. It was Governor 
Pickens who later demanded of Major Anderson that he sur- 
render Fort Sumter, and when he refused, the Governor sent his 
Attorney Geaneral, I. W. Hayne, to go to Washington and 
demand its surrender from President Lincoln. 


ae 361. A Call to the National Defense. 


The day after the surrender of Fort Sumter, President Lin- 
coln called for 75,000 volunteers for ninety days service. In the 
‘light of our knowledge of the Civil War period, there is an 
element of pathos in “this call. Before the war was over more 
than five times that number of Northern men alone would lie 
dead on the field of battle. 

But the whole country at the call of the President responded, 
and within thirty-six hours, several Pennsylvania companies 
were marching through the streets of Washington. The 6th 
Massachusetts Regiment was the first full regiment to march. 

Most of the volunteers were lads under twenty, many away 
from home for the first time. Many never returned; others 
came back war weary broken men. 

Action in the South was just as prompt, and soon the tramp 
of the boys in blue was echoed in the South by the march of 
the boys in grey. 

It now became necessary for the other slave states to decide 
whether they would remain in the Union or go with the South, 
Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina went to the South, 
while Virginia became divided, the West voting against secession’ 
and becoming a separate state in 1863, and the east going to the 
Confederate cause. 

Maryland, Missouri, Kentucky and Delaware did not secede. 

The Confederacy now consisted of eleven states, while the 
Union had twenty-two. No more states left the Union. 

In Illinois though her quota in the first call had been but 
six regiments, ten thousand men responded to the call. There | 
were no state funds available in the emergency, and private in- 
dividuals offered nearly a million dollars. The churches took 
up the contest and preached against secession, and urged loyalty 
to the cause of the Union. To quote Douglas, there was no 
longer Democrats and Republicans, only patriots or traitors. 

Douglas. did much for the cause of the Union in his last 
speech before the Illinois Legislature. His death in June was 
a most serious loss to the Northern cause. 

Though no more than the quota could be accepted, Gover- 
nor Yates of Illinois anticipated later calls, and began forming 


80 SECOND QUARTER 


and drilling mew companies. He authorized ten additional regi- 
ments and when men for twenty responded; all were put in 
training. When the second call came for six regiments, they 
were ready and waiting. 


362. The Border States. 


As we have ‘seen. before, when South Carolina seceded, 
Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia and Texas 
soon followed. Later, when President Lincoln called for volun- 
teers, and the rest of the Southern states had to stay in the Union 
and aid against the other slave states or definitely cast their lot 
with the Confederacy, Arkansas, Tennessee, North Carolina and 
, Virginia left the Union. This: left the slave states of Missouri. 
Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware, slaves states that were loyal 
{to the Union. Because of their seographical position between the 
| Northern and Southern states, they are often referred to as 
“border states.” 

““““» Virginia’s secession was one of the greatest aids the South 
could have received. There were two reasons for this—it per- 
mitted of a campaign in the East, and it brought the Southern 
_ forces very near to the National “Capital. Richmond became the 
™ capital of the South, while two of the greatest soldiers of the 
Confederate army were from .Virginia, General Robert E. Lee, 

and General “Stonewall” Jackson. However, the western part 
of the state withdrew, voted against secession, and was ad- 
mitted into the Union as West Virginia. A separate state in 
1863. The Union spirit was also very strong in Eastern 
_ Tennessee and many volunteers from this section volunteered 
‘in the Union army. Kentucky also gave many volunteers. 

Washington because of its position required almost immediate — 
protection. The Southern capital was protected by the Chicka- 
hominy River and dangerous marsh land. Maryland and Penn- 
sylvania were open to attack through the valley of the Shenan- 
doah. Throughout the war, this was the chief line of invasion 
into the North, from the valley to Harper’s ate and then into 
Maryland. 

In Kentucky, Union sentiment was very syne in the east- 
ern part among the mountains, as it also was in Eastern 
Tennessee and West Virginia. During the early months of the 
war, it was Lincoln’s chief concern to keep these four border 
states in the Union. That Maryland chose to stay was a great 
relief in that it gave added protection to Washington. Then 
his chief anxiety was in regard to Kentucky and Missouri. The 
reason for this was he wished the North to retain possession of 
the rivers in so far as possible. The Ohio, the Cumberland, the : 


* 


SECOND QUARTER 81 


Tennessee, and the Mississippi rivers were a certain means of 
invading the South, their loss would leave the result doubtful. 
They meant unbroken communication for supply transportation, 
and if the Union army went into hostile territory, its lines of 
communication must be kept open. A railroad might suffer in- 
- numerable accidents that could not happen to a river. There 
were also good reasons why the Mississippi~ River should be 
kept open to maintain the trade of the Northwest. It also gave 
an easy means of transporting troops to attack the enemy in the 
rear. Also possession of this river far enough South, could 
cut the Confederacy in two and thus prevent communication 
between the two sections. Thus the Union could prevent sup- 
plies being sent to the Confederate army from the West. These 
reasons made it of the greatest importance that Kentucky and 
_ Missouri be saved for the Union. 


ILLINOIS HISTORY—INTERNAL IMPROVEMENTS. 


(a) The Example of Other States. 

When Illinois was admitted as a state in 1818, the only 
means of transportation were by horseback, ox wagon, stage 
coach, or the canoe or flat boat on the rivers. Once immigration 
began, Illinois grew by leaps and bounds, and soon a ceneral 
demand arose for better means of travel. Internal improvements 
in neighboring states had been under way for some time, but 
no definite move was made by Illinois unti! 1836. The bill was 
recommended by Governor Duncan, and became a law in Febru- 
ary, 1837. It provided for. a system of internal improvements 
looking mainly to the bettering of transportation facilies. 

Through Indiana and Ohio, the National Highway was 
being built besides, in Maryland in 1828, the first railroad had 
been begun and in 1832, there had been seventy-three miles of 
the road completed. Pikes and canals had also been built in 
other states, and it was not strange therefore: that Illinois 
followed the example others were setting. 

(b) Early Improvement Agitation in Illinois. 

In February, 1837, the bill backed by Governor Duncan, 
providing for a system of internal improvements, became a law. 
It provided for over $10,000,000 worth of bonds to be issued. 
The money was to be used largely in improving water ways and 
building railroads. 

The rapid growth of the farming industry in the state had 
been responsible in great measure for the demand for transporta- 
tion facilities. Not “only did the new settlers need many things 
from Eastern markets; but the farmers of the state mceiicd a 
means of getting their crops to markets. 


82 SECOND QUARTER 


(c) Adaptability of the State to Railroad and Canal Building. 


Nature had adapted the state well both for railroad and 
canal construction. There were no mountains to cross, no stone 
_ to blast, and no forests to cut down. The river to the West 
and South and the lakes to the North, together with the network 
of smaller rivers within the state made canal building a 
thoroughly possible undertaking. 


(d) Value of Canal from Lake Michigan to Illinois River. 


Among the states that had early built canals were Ohio, 
Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York. In Illinois, it was 
Albert ‘Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, that early pointed 
out the importance of a canal connecting Lake Michigan and 
the Illinois River. Such a canal would make a complete water- 
way between the Great Lakes and New Orleans. Later it 
formed by the building of other canals, a means whereby boats 
loaded at Buffalo might go to either New Orleans or St. Paul 
without relanding of their cargo. 


(e) Importance of Railroads. 


When one considers the result to the state of building the 
Illinois Central Railroad, he can readily see the importance of 
railroads in developing the country. In fact the building of 
this road made possible the settlement of much of the state. 

Everywhere along the Illinois Central, towns sprang up 
and communities developed. The road made possible not only 
the transportation of the settler and his necessities, but it also 
gave him access to markets for the products from his land. 


(f) Influence of Gov. Duncan. 


Among the men who did much for the early improvement 
of the state one should not fail to mention Governor Duncan. 
To him is due largely the success of the first bill introduced into 
the Legislature which provided for a system of internal i improve- 
ment. This bill became a law in February, 1837. ~~ 


(g) Improvement Schemes of 1837. 


The law which provided for a system of internal improve- 
ment authorized the issue of over $10,000,000 worth of bonds 
to be used in improving rivers and building railroads. The 
Wabash, Illinois, Kaskaskia, and Rock rivers were the rivers to 
be improved. The railroads to be constructed would connect 
Alton and Mount Carmel, Cairo and Galena, Peoria and Warsaw, 
and Alton to the Central Railroad. The latter was the name for 
_ the road connecting Cairo and Galena. 


SECOND QUARTER 83 


In May, 1838, the first railroad called the Great Northern 
Cross was begun at Meredosia. When but eight miles of track 
had been completed the people with childlike curiosity to see a 
train run, shipped a locomotive from Pittsburg by water. In 
November, 1838, the engine—the first ever in the Mississippi 
Valley—made its first trip. Joseph Field was the engineer, 
while Governor Duncan and a party of friends were the pass- 
engers. This event took place just ten years after the Baltimore 
and Ohio road was built. The Baltimore and Ohio was the as 
road built in the United States, =< ~ ——— 


(h) The Collapse of a Great Undertaking. 


But the undertaking so auspiciously begun, was doomed to 
failure. This failure was due to several causes. The most 
serious cause perhaps was the lack of business experience of its 
backers. The railroad was a new undertaking and there was little 
or no guidance to be had from earlier attempts; another cause 
was the dishonesty of the contractors employed. The greed of 
almost all connected with the enterprise soon involved it so 
heavily in debt there was no carrying it on under State supervision. 
Now came a more serious failure. The railroad property was 
sold for merely a song. In the case of the Meredosia Railroad 
which had been completed as far as Springfield at a cost of 
$1,000,000 was sold to a Mr. Ridgley of Springfield for $21,100. 

But railroads were a necessity for the state and what had 
failed as a state undertaking was completed by private indi- 
viduals later, backed by state aid. 


(i) The State in Debt Nearly $20,000,000. 


Failure of the first railroad undertaking threw the state 
heavily in debt with no means of ever meeting the interest upon 
its bonds. The indebtedness amounted to almost $20,000,000 
and when in 1850, Congress passed an act granting to the States 
of Illinois, Alabama, and Mississippi grants of land for the con- 
struction of a railroad from Chicago to Mobile, it was forced 
by the State constitution to hand over the undertaking to a com- 
pany. This company was chartered by the state and known as 
the Illinois Central Railroad Company. It agreed to pay the 
state instead of taxes seven per cent of the gross earnings of 
the road. Between that date and 1910 almost $30,000,000 had 
been paid* by the Illinois Central to the State.. This money has 
done much toward keeping the state out of debt, and lightening 
its taxes on personal and real estate property. 


oe 


84 7 THIRD QUARTER 


THIRD QUARTER 


OUR FEDERAL UNION MUST BE PRESERVED. 
FROM FORT SUMPTER TO THE GRAND REVIEW. 


363. The War in the East. 


The general plan of the whole war as made by Union com- 
manders looked toward four things. These were: 

1. To save the border states of Missouri, Maryland, Ken- 
tucky and Delaware through early occupation by Union troops. 

2. To blockade~all Southern ports and thus cut off the. 
South both from sending out cotton or receiving supplies from 
abroad. 

3. To capture the Cuatedeate Capital, Richmond. 

4. To cut the Confederate states in two by a drive down 
the Mississippi Valley. 

The campaigns of 1861-2 may for convenience Be divided 
into the general movements. 

1. Efforts made to save the border states. 

2. Engagements in the East. 

3. Engagements in the West. 

By the middle of the summer of 1861, the North had about - 
180,000 men under arms, while the South had perhaps 150,000. 
The position of the Union Army was in Eastern Virginia and 
Maryland. From Harper’s Ferry, it extended along the banks 
of the Potomac to the mouth, thence south to Fort Monroe, just 
above Norfolk. The Confederates held the countr y south of the 
Potomac, with the capital, Richmond, as the center of operations. 

Thus, we see that the operations ‘in the East in the early part 
of the war were two-fold. They were aimed to secure the border 
state of Maryland for the Union, and if possible to speedily 
capture Richmond. In the former, they were successful, but in 
the second they failed for the time ‘being. 


364, Bull Run—The First Great Battle; 365. General 


McClellan in Command. 
One of the objects in the campaigns of the North and 


Ne 


South was the capture of the other’s capital. The Union | 


army, 100,000 in number, with this im view made the advance 


THIRD QUARTER 85 


on Richmond under General McClellan. This attempt in 
1862 was unsuccessful. One of the early battles along the 
coast was that of Bull Run. 

The battle of Bull Run was fought July 21, 1861. In July, 
1861, McClellan was given command of the military department 
of Washington and in Eastern Virginia. 

Bull Run is about thirty-five miles southwest of Washington. 
The soldiers of the Union Army, under McDowell, moved out of 
Washington and were in a hurry to make a dash on Rich- 

mond, the Confederate capital. The soldiers of the Southern 
army ‘under Beauregard were at Manassas Junction. Johnson 
had been ordered by the Confederate government to join 
Beauregard. The Southern army was anxious to make an 
attack on Washington. 

The two armies met at Bull Run. The Union army 


under McDowell did the first firing. For. a.time it seemed as. 


‘though the Union army would be successful, but finally the 
Southern army received reinforcements and the Union army 
was compelled to retreat back to Washington. Beauregard 
was not able to follow the Union army into Washington | or 
the result would have been disastrous. 

It was a bad defeat for the poor cnyeinee Union army. 
The North bowed their heads in shame for they thought our 
soldiers acted like cowards. President Lincoln kcnicw Bester: 
he saw at once that they must be better drilled and organized. 


It taught the North that the war was not to end in three 


months as many had expected, the defeat also encouraged 

them to become more determined to overcome the Confed- 
erates. 

Although it was a victory for the South, it did them more 
parm than good for it filled them with an exaggerated hope- 
ulness. 

~~ About 2,000 were killed and wounded on each side, but not 
many prisoners were taken. Most of these were wounded 
Northern men, about 1,500 according to Beauregard’s figures. 

The results of the Battle of Bull Run were far- -reaching. It 
resulted in McClellan’s Army being called from Western Virginia 
to Washington. The North began systematic preparations for a 
long war, while the South was utterly blinded to their opportuni- 
ties which lay on one hand and the dangers on the other. 


366. The Government Without Ships of War. 

When the Civil War broke out, Lincoln had but about thir- 
teen ships in American waters—eight “steamships and five sailing 
- ships. Had he been able to muster the full strength of our ves- 
_ sels, the struggle might have been shortened by months. Once 


ae 


86 THIRD QUARTER 


the ships were in action, they did very effective work in cutting 
off supplies for the South. 

Many of the ships of the United States at the beginning of 
1861 were in foreign waters; while those in Southern ports had 
been seized by the Confederacy. Over two hundred officers of 
the Navy left the service of the North to gain that of the South. 
President Davis had issued an order permitting privateering, and 
whatever ships the South could seize were soon employed in 
preying upon Union commerce. But by the beginning of 1862, 
the Federal Navy had captured most of the ships from the Con- 
federates, and reduced the danger from that quarter to a mini- 
mum.» Except for ships purchased from Great Britain, the South 
got but few more ships. By December, 1861, the naval force had 
grown to two hundred sixty-four war ships, with 2557 guns, and 
20,000 seamen. 


367. Blockade of the Southern Ports. . 

One of the first things Lincoln did after declaring war was 
to declare the South in a state of blockade. This semmed at the 
time, an idle threat, but ships and men were soon collected in 
sufficient numbers to make it effective. As we have said before, 
the South was largely dependent upon the North or foreign - 
countries for almost all the necessities of life, and once the block- — 
ade was enforced the South was greatly crippled. 

When we learn that Lincoln had in American waters but 
thirteen ships and some of these small when the war began, one 
can understand how idle his threat to blockade the Southern 
ports must have seemed. His blockade order was issued in 1861 
and declared all the coast from Virginia to the southern point of 
Texas in a state of blockade. He placed warships to patrol the 
coast especially near seaports. These he ordered to stop and 
capture all ships that attempted to go into or to leave any South- 
ern harbor. This measure, once it became really effective, was 
one of the greatest blows that fell to the South. 

The sea patrol was divided into four divisions. The North 
Atlantic Squadron patrolled the coast from Virginia to the South © 


Carolina line and was under the command of Capt. L. M. Golds- 


borough. From this point south to Florida, by the South Atlanti¢ 
Squadron, commanded by Capt. S. F. DuPont. From Key West 
north to Pensacola, the East Gulf Squadron kept watch while 
from Pensacola to South Texas the West Gulf Squadron was on 
guard. The last two were under the command of Capt. W. W. 
McKean. 


368. The Moniter and the Merrimac. 


When the Confederates were about to get possession of | 
the Portsmouth navy yard by the secession of Virginia, the 


THIRD QUARTER @ 87 


Union forces sank or burned all the vessels that they thought 
would be of any use to the Confederates. Among the vessels 
that had been sunk and partly burned was the ‘Merrimac.” 
‘Vhe Confederates raised it, covered it with iron, and called it 
the “Virginia.” They now sent the “Virginia” under the com- 
mand of Captain Buchanan to Hampton Roads to destroy the 
Union fleet of wooden vessels in Hampton Roads. The first 
attack was on the “Cumberland,”-Which in a short time was 
destroyed, and one hundred and twenty-one of her crew killed. 
The next attack was on the “Congress,” which in a short time 
was forced to surrender, with the loss of one hundred men. 
She then retired to Norfolk, for the night. The next day she 
was ready for the ‘ ‘Minnesota” when suddenly behind her, 
appeared a curious looking craft. It was the “Monitor,” also 
an iron clad vessel, which had come from New York. The 
“Monitor” opened fire on the “Merrimac,” and the two vessels 
fought for four hours, finally, the “Merrimac” was forced to 
give up and steam back to the navy yard. Had it not been 


for the “Monitor” probably the “Merrimac” would have de- | 


stroyed every Northern vessel besides she might have sailed 
up the Potomac and threatened our capital. This was the 
first time that two iron clad vessels ever met in battle. It 
ended the days of wooden vessels, and marked a new era in 
naval warfare. 

Neither of the boats ever r took part in another encounter. 
The “Monitor” and most of her crew went down in December, 
1862 in a storm off Cape Hatteras, North Carolina, and the 

“Merrimac” was destroyed when McClellan pu the Con- 
federates to withdraw from Norfolk. 

The naval fleet of that time, while now it seems insig- 
nificant to us, played an important part in the Civil War. 
They carried out the blockade of the eastern ports, and aided 
much in the campaign along the Mississippi River. Here under 
Captain Farragut, a fleet of nearly fifty wooden vessels was 
gathered—the largest that had ever sailed under the Stars 
and Stripes. His work was to destroy the forts, conquer the 
Confederate fleet, and take the city. One of the men who 
took part in this successful enterprise was Lieutenant George 
Dewey, who later became Admiral Dewey, the “Hero of 

Manila.” 
4 The Monitor had been built at New York by John Ericsson. 
It had a small iron hull. On the top of the deck there was built 
a round turret carrying two guns. This turret revolved, hence the 
guns could fire in any direction. The Southerners laughed at the 
queer craft and called it a Yankee cheese box on a raft. 


88 THIRD QUARTER 


The battle between these first two iron clad warships took 
place March 9. Neither ship could really claim the victory in the 
encounter, though both did so. 


369. Peninsular Campaign; 370. Washington rhidedenet tc 


In July, 1861, General McClellan was given command of the 
military department of Washington and in Eastern Virginia. 
August and September were spent in organizing and drilling the 
new army, and in fortifying Washington in every possible way. 
By the middle of October, McClellan’s Army totaled over 150,000 
men, and two hundred pieces of artillery. The soldiers were in 
readiness and the demand came from the North that he should 
make some decisive move. Still he hestitated. After the 
battle of Bull Run there was little activity along the coast 
until in 1862. McClellan was in charge of the army there 
and the North was growing impatient because he did not 
make an advance upon Richmond, the Confederate capital. 
Finally in March 1862, McClellan was ready to move. This 


was the first advance of McClellan. His plan was to take 


his troops from Washington by water to the peninsula be- 
tween the James and York rivers. By choosing this route, he 
thought he could reach Richmond without having to dispute 
with the enemy over any of the great rivers. Johnston would 
be forced to leave Bull Run and go to the defense of Rich- 
mond. 

The great objections to this plan were that Johnston 
might not try to defend Richmond, but might march against 
Washington ; besides, General “Stonewall” Jackson was close 
at hand in the Shenandoah Valley, and might march down the 
valley and make a dash on Washington, therefore, Stanton, 
Secretary of War, and Lincoln ordered McClellan to leave 
about 75,000 men under McDowell, Banks, and Fremont to 
protect Washington and keep the Confederates from coming 
down the Shenandoah. McClellan took the remainder of his 
army from Washington to Fortress Monroe, and after he had 
drilled his army for about a month in order to attack York- 
town, the Confederates quietly moved away to Richmond. 
McClellan started after them, intending to have a battle with 
them at Williamsburg, but they got away again. McClellan 
followed them until within seven miles of Richmond. In fol- 
lowing the enemy, the Union army got into a dangerous 
position. Heavy rains had caused the Chickahominy river to 
rise, and this cut the army in two. Johnston knew this was 
his opportunity, and struck the southern half of the Union 
army at Fair Oaks. On the first day of the battle the Con- 
pedrtatcs were sucecssful, but were defeated the second day. 


-—- 


THIRD QUARTER 89 


The Confederate commander, Joseph E. Johnston, was wound- 
ed and the command was given to Robert E. Lee. Lee sum- 
moned Johnston from the Shenandoah Valley, and attacked 
McClellan from the 26th of June to the 2d of July, 1862. This / 
is known as the Seven Days’ Battles. McClellan was forced 
to: leave on account of provisions, afid took up his position at 
the east of the James River, but later moved back to the 
neighborhood of Washington. 

The Confederates had boldly defended their capital, and 
McClellan’s advance on Richmond had ended in a failure. 

The last battle of the “Seven Day’s Fight” in the Peninsular 
Campaign was known as the battle of Malvern Hill. This en- 
gagement took place July 1, 1862. The Peninsular Campaign 
had cost the North thousands in killed and wounded. In the 
fighting of the last seven days, McClellan lost 16,000 men, and 
Richmond was as far out of reach as ever. 


371. The Battle of Antietam. 


. When Joseph E. Johnston was wounded at Fair Oaks, 
the command of the Confederate army was given to Robert 
E. Lee. The Confederates had already made one advance 
against Washington in the first battle of Bull Run. Lee’s 
route was north from Fair Oaks toward Washington, where 
he was determined to attack Pope, who held command of the 
Union forces near Washington. 

Pope met the armies of Lee and Jackson on the old Bull 
Run battlefield. They fought for two days, August 29th and 
30th. Pope’s army,was defeated, and he was forced to fall 
back to Washington. He then resigned his command, and his 
army was united with that of McClellan. 

_Lee made an advance into Maryland, and was determined 
to win that state for the Confederacy. But when he arrived 
there he was treated so coldly that he soon knew that Mary- 
land had no desire to become a part of the “Confederate States 
of America.” Shortly after entering the state, Lee and Jack- 
son took Frederick, and then intended to move on Baltimore 
or Philadelphia. 

The poem, “Barbara Frietchie,” written by John G. Whit- 
tier, tells the story of how Barbara Frietchie, of Frederick, a 
woman ninety years of age, raised the flag from her attic 
window, and how Jackson ordered his men to shoot it down. 
Scarcely had it been shot down and the staff broken, when 
she waved it again, saying: 
| . “Shoot, if you must, this old gray head, oD, 

® But spare your country’s flag.” 


= 


90 | THIRD QUARTER 


When Jackson, who had once fought under the American 
flag in the Revolutionary War, saw how loyal Barbara 
Frietchie was to her country, he gave the command to his 
soldiers: 

“Who touches a hair of yon gray head, 
Dies like a dog! March on! he said.” 

General McClellan followed the Confederates after they 
left Frederick, and forced Lee to turn westward. The two 
armies met at Antietam, and here one of the bloodiest battles 
of the war was fought, September_17, 1862. Lee was forced 
to retreat after a heavy loss. The Confederates lost eleven 
thousand men, and the Union army lost twelve thousand. “Lee 
recrossed the Potomac into Virginia. Lincoln ordered Mc- 
Clellan to follow him, but because he moved so slowly, he 
was removed from command, and Burnside became his suc- 
cessor. 

It has been said that there were more killed and wounded 
during the battle of Antietam September 17, 1862, than on any 
other one day of the whole war. The Union Army lost 12,000 
men and the Confederates 9,000, some authorities say 11 000. 
At least though it was not a decisive victory for either side, his 
losses were so heavy that he was compelled to cross the Potomac, 
and thus lessen the danger to Washington. 


372. Severe Battles in Northern Virginia. 


General Burnside began a third, advance on Richmond. 
He crossed the Rappahannock, and met the Confederates 
under Lee, who were protected by the fortified heights around 
Fredericksburg. The Union army made the attack, December 
13, 1862, and was defeated with a loss of 13,000 men. The — 
Confederates lost 4,000. Burnside was dismissed from com- 
mand, and Hooker took his place. 

Hooker now thought he would reach Richmond from the 
Rappahannock River. The two armies met at a small place 
called Chancellorsville. The battle was fought May 1 to 4, 


1863. The Confederates were under Lee and Jackson. Hooker | 


was defeated and lost 17,000 men. Even though victorious, it 
was a sad battle for the Confederates, for in this battle “Stone- 
wall” Jackson, through a mistake, was shot by one of his own 
men, and died a few days later. It is probable that the Union 
army would not have been defeated had it not been that Gen- 
eral Hooker was stunned by a cannon ball, and was not able 
to give commands for several hours. 

This was the fifth campaign again Richmond, and it 
ended in another failure. 


THIRD QUARTER 9] 


General Lee felt greatly encouraged by his great victory 
at Chancellorsville, and resolved to move northward, through 
Maryland into Pennsylvania, where he intended to capture 
Philadelphia and New York, and then move on Washington. 
He thought if he was successful, England and France would 
then help the Confederacy. This was the third time the Con- 
federates advanced into the Northern states. Lee had a fine 
army of 70,000 men. Hooker, who had 100,000, started after 
his as fast as he could, to prevent him from making an attack 
on Philadelphia. 

Just in the midst of the campaign, Hooker wanted to 
withdraw the Union force which was at Harper’s Ferry. This 
the War Department would not permit, whereupon Hooker 
asked to be removed from command, and, being refused, he 
resigned and was succeeded by General George G. Meade. -The 
new Union commander pushed on to Gettysburg, where he ~ 
met the Confederates under Lee. 


373. The Deciding Battle—Gettysburg. 


Gettysburg was one of the most important and decisive 
battles of the war. Both sides fought with the most desperate 
courage. The Confederates held Seminary Ridge; the Union 
men, Cemetery Ridge, nearly opposite. The battle lasted 
three days, July 1 to 4, 1863. On the first day the Confederates 
having far greater numbers, gained the advantage. On the 
second day Lee’s men made a rush to get Little Round Top, 
but were beaten back with heavy loss. Later they got a foot- 
hold on Culp’s Hill, but were soon driven out. 

Longstreet advised Lee not to make a final attack, but 
Lee was determined to risk it, and the third day Lee sent 
Pickett with a force of 15,000 Confederates to attack General 
Hancock on Cemetery Ridge. To reach the ridge they had to 
cross a mile of open ground. They came forward steadily, 
silently, under a terrible fire from the Union guns. Their 
ranks were ploughed through and through with shot and shell, 

“but the men did not falter. They charged up the slight rise of 
ground and broke a part’ of the Union line; but they could go 
no further, and- Pickett, with the fragments of his division— 
for only fragments were left—fell back defeated. It was the 
end of the most stubbornly fought battle of the war: nearly 
fifty thousand brave men had fallen in the contest. Lee had 
failed; he retreated across the Potomac, and never made an- 
other attempt to invade the North.—From “Montgomery's Lead- 
ing Facts of American History. Ginn & Company, Publishers, 


bp. 316, 317. 


92 THIRD a ge 


Lee had 70,000 men and Meade 90,000 for use in the battle. 

Gettysburg was the first and last battle fought on Northern 
soil. No later attempt was made at Washington and hereafter 
the-South fought only on the defensive. It was less than two 
years since the first real battle of the war had been fought, but 
during this time both sides had shown a loyalty to their cause 
that must excite the admiration of all future generations. It 
seemed now that the North would. surely be victorious, provided ie 
she was not divided by dissensions at home. But it was equally 
certain that the South would never give up till men, money, and 
provisions were completely exhausted. It was a test of mere en- 
durance, and the South was sure to make the North pay, and 
pay dear ly for any- victories gained. 


WAR IN THE WEST. 


374. Plans for War West of the Alleghanies. 


The war in the West had three objectives:—Ist, to hold 
the border states; 2nd, to control the principal rivers, Mississippi, 
Ohio, Cumberland and the Tennessee; 3rd, to invade the South, 
divide the Confederacy and capture its army. 

Lincoln’s first aim was to save the border states. These 
were the slaves states of Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and 
Missouri. In Eastern Kentucky, Tennessee, and in Western 
Virginia, which later became the separate state of West Virginia 
there was a strong Union sentiment. Indeed, the first victories 
the Union cause won, were gained in Western Virginia. 

Lincoln realized how much it would mean to the North. to 
keep these states in the Union. It would not only give their 
resources to the Union cause but would help discourage the South 
for them not to have all the slave states in the Confederacy. 
Owing to the stand her Governor took, Maryland soon decided _ 
for the Union. But then Kentucky and Missouri were yet to win. — 

In the contest for Missouri, two important battles were  ~ . 
fought. These were the battles of Wilson’s Creek, August, 1861,, « 
and Pea Ridge, March, 1862. ! 

In the contest for Kentucky the struggle settled around the 
two forts—Fort Donelson and Fort Henry. These were forts on 
the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers about twelve miles apart 
and were held by the Confederate. When they were captured 
by Grant, Kentucky was definitely saved for the Union. 

The second plan of the North in carrying the war into the 
West had to do with winning the principal rivers. The capture 
of the two forts—Fort Donelson and Fort Henry, broke the 
Confederate line of defense on the Cumberland and Tennessee 
rivers. Grant then moved his army south to Pittsburg Landing 


THIRD QUARTER 93 


on the Tennessee River and at Shiloh gained a most decisive 
victory. This gave a clear passage down the Tennessee River 
and also forced the Confederates to abandon Fort Pillow on the 
Mississippi River. This now gave the Union side the Mississippi 
River as far south as Memphis, Tennessee. Later New Orleans, 
Vicksburg, and Port Hudson were taken and the whole length of 
the Mississippi opened. 

The third plan of the Union side was to divide the Confed- 
erate forces and then capture them. This plan was aided by the 
opening of the Mississippi River, for it cut the Confederacy off 
from aid that Texas and the states to the west might otherwise 
have given and decided that the battle ground of the war would 
be in the states east of the Mississippi and for the most part 
south of the Ohio River. 

. The full-discussion of these battles will be ee up in later 

topics. The chief battles of this period of the war were:— 
Murfreesboro (sometimes called Stone’s River), Chickamauga, 
Chattanooga, Lookout Mountaim, Resaca, Dallas and Kenesaw 
M ountain. 


375. Grant’s Task to Open the Mississippi. 


The Confederate line of defense extended from Columbus, 
Kentucky, on the Mississippi. River west to Cumberland Gap in 
the Alleghanies. In January, 1862, Grant occupied Paducah, 
Kentucky, at the mouth at the Tennessee River. Polk was in 
- command of the Confederate forces at Columbus, Kentucky. 
He had seen what an advantage Paducah would be to the South 
for it would give him access to both the Cumberland and 
- Tennessee rivers, but Grant got possession of it first. Polk im- 
mediately began to strengthen the bluff at Columbus with earth- | 
works on which he mounted one hundred forty-two heavy guns. 
At New Madrid at Island No. 10 and at Fort Pillow—all places 
on the Mississippi River south of Columbus fortifications were 
also begun or strengthened. 

Grant’s task now was to get possession of the forts not 
only along the Mississippi but also along the Cumberland and 
Tennessee. 

-Among the encounters ‘before he gained his objective which 
was the battle of Belmont. In this battle the Union side lost be- 
tween five and six hundred killed, captured, and wounded, while 
the Confederates lost six hundred forty-one. Both sides dained 2) 
victory, but the odds were perhaps with the Confederate forces. 

Grant now turned his attention to FortHenry on the 
Tennessee River and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland. After 
these were captured, he held undisputed possession of the river 


94 THIRD QUARTER 


to Memphis for Fort Pillow and Island No. 10 could no longer 
be held by the Confederates. 

The little town of Corinth in northern Mississippi was a 
very strategic point for it was the junction of the two railroads 
connecting the Mississippi River, the Gulf of Mexico with 
Virginia and the Carolinas. If this could be taken, the river 
would be open to Vicksburg. : 

Beauregard was in command of the Confederate troops at 
Corinth. Halleck was at the head of the advancing Union forces. 
Grant had been placed second in command over the whole of the 
three armies of Pope, Grant, and Buell, a position of greater honor 
than usefulness, as later appeared. The combined forces num- 
bered more than 100,000 men. Later, in March, 1864, he was 
made commander-in-chief of all the Union forces. Beauregard 
knew he could not hold Corinth against such numbers, so with- 
drew to Tupelo, a station sixty miles south on the road to Mobile. ~ 


Later Vicksburg was captured, and with New Orleans already _ 


in the hands of the Union forces, the Mississippi was open to 
the Gulf. 


376. Cairo and Mound City, Strategic Points. 


Early in the war, both sides saw the strategic value of Cairo. 
It was situated at the junction of the Mississippi and Ohio rivers; . 
this being the key to both rivers. Polk tried to gain it for the 
Confederates, and with this in view entrenched himself at 
Columbus, Kentucky. Not only was Cairo important from the 
river side, but with it in possession of the Confederates, all 
western Kentucky would be lost to the Union cause. But Grant 
saw its value to the Union, and seized it. At the same time Polk 
took possession of Columbus. 

Mound City was a point just north of Cairo. It was aber ten 
miles north and on the Ohio River. With Cairo in his possession, 
Grant could control this part of the Mississippi River and with 
Mound City, he held the key to the Ohio River. His next move 
was to gain possession of Paducah, Kentucky. With this in his 
control, he blockaded the lower Ohio and commanded the mouths 
of the Cumberland and Tennessee rivers. Later General C. F. 
Smith was sent to hold the mouth of the Cumberland Riyer for 
the Union cause. f 

377, From Cairo to Ft. Donelson. 


Grant saw the strategic importance about the time Polk saw 
it, but while the Confederate general was entrenching himself at 
Columbus, Grant seized Cairo, He next gained- possession of 
_ Paducah. Grant now asked permission to move against Polk at | 
Columbus, but his request was unheeded. In the meantime the 


THIRD QUARTER 95 


Confederates were strengthening their positions at Columbus, at 
New Madrid, and at Island No. 10, and still further south at 
Fort Pillow. 

November 7, Grant sailed down the Mississippi under convoy 
of two gunboats, with 3,000 men and landed on the Missouri 
shore about three miles from Columbus. This place was called 
Belmont and consisted of but three wooden shanties, built at the 
level of the water, and entirely screened by a high woods from 
view of the enemy at Columbus. Polk had sent General Pillow 
with 2,500 men to this point. After a fight lasting for hours, 
Pillow’s forces retreated in disorder and the Union men took 
possession of the camp. But Grant’s troops were raw and un- 
trained, and were so elated over the success of the undertaking 
that they persisted in pillaging the camp, instead of making a safe 
getaway. Grant saw the danger and ordered the camp to be set 
on fire. When the batteries at Columbus saw it in possession of 
the enemy, they opened a heavy fire upon it, and the Union troops 
_ at last realizing their danger, started for their boats. But Grant 
had reorganized his scattered forces, and with three fresh regi- 
ments cut off the line of retreat of the Union forces from their 
boats. Grant had to charge the enemy, which again retreated, 
this time to be reinforced by General Polk himself. However, 
the Federal troops at last gained their boats, taking with them two 
captured cannon and some prisoners. Grant narrowly missed 
_ being captured, since he persisted in staying on the field till his 

troops were on board. 

Both sides claimed a victory at Belmont. Grant had gained 
his purpose, which was to so engage Polk’s attention that he 
would keep his forces at Columbus.and not send any of them as 
aid to Missouri. 

Polk had been successful in blocking the Mississippi River 
_ by his fortress at Columbus, so now Fort Henry was built on the 
Tennessee and Fort Donelson on the Cumberland with the same 
end in view. Both were in Tennessee about twelve miles apart. 
About ninety miles northeast of Fort Donelson was Bowling 
Green, held by General Buckner. East of Bowling Green about 
the same distance was Mill Spring where General Zollicoffer 
guarded the approaches to the Cumberland Mountains. 

The next move made by the Union forces was upon Fort 
Henry and Fort Donelson. The Confederates wanted to protect 
Tennessee from invasion, therefore they built two forts, one at 
Fort ‘Henry, on the Tennessee River, and the other at Fort 
Donelson, on the Cumberland River. If these two places could be 
taken, the Union forces could gain control of the two rivers, be- 
sides break the Confederate line of defense in the center. Com- 
modore Foote, with his fleet, made an attack upon Fort 


96 THIRD QUARTER 


Henry. He was to have been assisted by General Grant, but 
Grant did not get there in time to take part in the capture of 
it. Foote was successful, and Fort Henry surrendered Febru- 
ary 6, 1862. He next moved against Fort Donelson, but his 
ships were damaged so badly that he was compelled to with- — 
draw. Grant surrounded the fort with 30,000 men, and com- 
pelled the Confederates under General Buckner to surrender 
February 16, 1862. This broke the Confederate line of de- 
fense, and opened the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers for 
a long distance. The Confederates abandoned Bowling Green 
and Columbus, and evacuated Nashville. All of Kentucky 
and most of Tennessee were now held by the Union forces. 


378. Capture of New Orleans. 


Captain Farragut, with a large fleet, and General Butler, 
with a land force, undertook to capture New Orleans. The 
Confederates protected the city by building two forts, one on 
each side of the river. Below these forts two heavy iron chains 
were stretched from the hulks of sunken ships. Yet before 
they could get to New Orleans it was necessary to run 
through a fleet of Confederate gunboats. Several days were 
spent in trying to reduce the forts. Finally Commodore Far- 
ragut cut the chains and ran past the forts with his ships, but 
exposed his men to a terrible cannonade from the forts. At 
last he reached New Orleans above the forts, and captured 
the city April 25, 1862. This great victory gave the Union 
government the control of the lower Mississippi. General 
Butler (Union) held the city after it had been captured. 


379. Mississippi River in Control of Union Forces Above and 
Below Vicksburg. : 


After the Confederates withdrew from northwestern* Iennes- 
see,they centered at Corinth, a little town in northern Mississippi. 
The united forces of Grant and Buell under the command of 
Halleck were to attack this place. The Confederates were doing 
all in their power to hold this, so that they might make it the base 
for their offensive campaign. 

Grant took up his position at Shilch, near Pittsburgh 
Landing. Here he was attacked, and the first day driven back 
by the Confederates. The Confederate General, Albert Sidney 
Johnston, tried hard to drive Grant into the Tennessee river, 
but the next day General Buell arrived with reinforcements 
for Grant, and after fighting all day, the Confederates under 
Beauregard were forced to retreat. This was one of the most 
stubbornly fought battles of the war, and both sides lost 
heavily. The Union loss was about 15,000; the Confederate 


THIRD QUARTER 97 


about 10,700. After the Confederates had been defeated at 
Shiloh, they took up their position at Corinth. This was an 
important point near the Confederate railroad. Soldiers and 
supplies which came off the steamers could be landed there, 
and then could be hauled to the railroad. If the Union army 
could get possession of this railroad, which extended from 
Memphis to Chattanooga, they thought they could starve 
the Confederates until they would give up the war. This was 
Grant’s object when he was attacked at Pittsburgh Landing. 
In May, the Confederates surrendered Corinth, and it was 
occupied by Union troops. 

Island Number Ten, on the Mississippi River, was taken 
by General Pope and Commodore Foote, April 8, 1862. The 
two armies fought for over a month. At last the Confederates 
surrendered. This opened the Mississippi down to Vicksburg. 

The capture of New Orleans by General Butler and General 
Farragut gave the Union Army control of the lower part of the 
Mississippi River as far north as Vicksburg. The capture of 
New Orleans had been important for several reasons. It was by 
far the largest of the Southern cities, having a population of about 
170,000. It had many machine shops and many trained workmen 
_——both badly needed by the Confederacy. It also closed the lower 
Mississippi to Union boats. If the Union could gain New 
Orleans, it could cut off Texas, Arkansas, and Louisiana from 
aiding the Confederacy. These states could furnish at least 
100,000 more men, and could raise enough food to feed all the 
South. These reasons made it very necessary for the North to 
seize New Orleans as soon as possible. 


380, Seige and Capture of Vicksburg. 


After the battles of ‘Iuka and Corinth, Grant was put in 
command of the Army of the West, and allowed to work out 
his own plans. He decided that the capture of Vicksburg 
should be the next important event. General Sherman, aided 
by the gunboats, was to go down the Mississippi from Mem- 
phis, land on the Yazoo and attack the city from the north 
side. /Grant was to advance from Holly Springs directly 
toward Vicksburg, and occupy the attention of General Pem- 
| berton, who commanded a Confederate army in northern 
Mississippi, and prevent him from sending aid to Vicksburg. 
General Rosecrans was to advance against General Bragg, 
who, with another Confederate force, was near Murphysboro, 
and ‘keep him from sending troops into Mississippi. It was’ 
/ expected that Sherman would thus be able to capture Vicks- 
burg, or that Grant’s and Sherman’s armies could unite and 
' capture it. 


! 


98 : THIRD QUARTER 


The armies started according to the plan, but a Confed- 
erate force of cavalry raided Holly Springs and destroyed 
Grant’s depot of supplies, so he was unable to advance, Sher- 


man, not knowing of Grant’s misfortune, went ahead with his _ 


attack, but was badly defeated. The whole plan had failed 
because Grant could not protect his line of supplies for such 
a long advance into the country as a start from the north in- 
volved. Besides, the plan was bad. It involved the co-oper- 
ation of armies too distant from each other, and each liable to 
defeat before the other could aid it. Some plan would have 
to be worked out that would permit of all the forces being 
used in one large army. : 
In the Spring of 1863 Grant, after trying to cut a_canal 
past Vicksburg, decided to march his army down the west 
side of the river to a point some’twenty-five miles below 
Vicksburg, have his gunboats and transports run past the 
batteries, and then, with the aid of his boats, transfer his entire 
army to the east bank of the river, and then attack Vicksburg 
from the east, or rear side. 
General Pemberton, with a strong army, was in Vicks- ; 
burg watching Grant, and General Johnston was collecting 
another army near Jackson. Grant planned to get between ~ 
these two armies and prevent them from uniting. So long 
as they were divided, his army was stronger than either, but 
united they were possibly more than a match for him. The 
success of the plans turned upon the energy and speed with 
which it was executed. A delay might easily mean failure and 
a defensive struggle with the combined Confederate armies. 
If the attack was made with sufficient energy, both Vicksburg 
and Pemberton’s army would be captured. He succeeded in 
getting his army across the river without much opposition, 
captured Port Gibson, pushed on raipdly and defeated General 
Johnston’s army at Jackson, seized the railroad over which 
Pemberton got his supplies, turned west, and defeated General 
Pemberton’s army at Champion’s Hill, and again at Big Black 
River, and so drove him back into Vicksburg. Grant intended 
to capture Pemberton’s whole army as well as Vicksburg. 
Failing to capture the place by direct assault, he had to settle 
~ down and take the place by regular siege operations. In 
the meantime, Johnston had reorganized his army, recaptured 
Jackson, and was trying to force Grant to give up the siege. 
Pemberton was inside, Grant was just outside, and Johnston 
was on the outside of Grant’s army. As Grant’s army re- 
ceived its provisions from the boats in the Mississippi River, 
it was in no danger of being cut off from its supplies, and 
sufficient reinforcements soon reached him to enable him to 


THIRD QUARTER 99 


fortify the ground east of him, so as to prevent Johnston from 
interfering. General Pemberton and his army of 35,000 men 
were entirely cut off from supplies by the boats in the river, 
and Grant’s army on the east, and as their provisions were 
soon exhausted, they were forced to surrender, July 4, 1863. 

The prisoners were paroled and thus the Union was spared 
the time and cost of feeding this great number of men. Before 
the evening of the 4th, Sherman had gone with 50,000 men in 
pursuit of Johnston. 

The number. captured at Vicksburg was the greatest up to 
that day in modern warfare. Grant took 37,000 men and one 
hundred seventy-two cannon, while the North went mad with joy. 
The capture of Vicksburg marks the turning point of the war. 
It together with the Battle of Gettysburg, showed definitely the 
real superiority of the North over the South, in men, supplies, 
and generalship. 


COLLAPSE OF THE REBELLION. 


381. Operations Around Chattanooga. 


After the fall of Vicksburg, the next most strategic point 
_ held by the Confederates, aside from their capital at Richmond, 
was Chattanooga and its mountainous surroundings. This was 
true largely because of its position. It has often been called the 
gateway to the North, and such it really was located at the lower 
end of the mountain defile known as East Tennessee; it is the 
center of many railroads leading in every direction, both North 
and South. If the Union forces could capture it, the Confederacy 
would indeed be divided and North Carolina and Virginia would 
be shut off to the east. Georgia would lie open to invasion from 
the north, while Mississippi and Alabama would be isolated to 
the southwest. Each great army had its objective. Vicksburg 
had been the objective of the Army of the Tennessee; Richmond, 
of the Army of the Potomac; so now Chattanooga was the ob- 
jective of the Army of the Cumberland. Rosecrans was in charge 
of the army in this region, and on June 24, he led his army from 
Murfreesboro, Tennessee. He hoped to maneuver Bragg, the 
Confederate general, out of Chattanooga if he could without a 
battle. By skillful maneuvering in nine days, he had cleared 
central Tennessee of Confederate forces, and had caused them to 
take up their stand at Chattanooga. Rosecrans had 70,000 men, 
and Bragg but 40,000, so Bragg had to call Buckner’s forces from 
eastern Tennessee, thus abandoning Knoxville to the Federal 
forces. Now, Rosecrans was faced with the problem of dis- 
lodging Bragg from Chattanooga. Because of its location, it was 


100 THIRD QUARTER 


very difficult to approach it from the north. The most direct 
route was the road over Waldron’s Ridge, but Rosecrans knew 
Bragg was expecting him over this road so decided to come up 
from the south instead. This road kept him in touch with his 
base of supplies at Stevenson, and would keep him near a railway, 
but it took him over very rough country and poor roads. A series 
of parallel ranges lay along the banks of the Tennessee River. 
They were Raccoon Mountain, Lookout Mountain, Missionary 
Ridge, Pigeon Mountain, Chickamauga Hill, Taylor’s Ridge and 
Chattanooga Mountain, while the city of Chattanooga lay between ~- 
the Tennessee River, and the northern ends of these ridges. 
Dalton and Resaca, Georgia, lay to the south and east. _ Now 
Rosecrans plan was to keep his base at Stevenson, Alabama cov- 
ered, while he moved south across these mountain ridges and at- 
tacked the city from the south. In order to keep Bragg from 
seeing what he was doing, he began to shell the town on the 
twentieth of August from across the river, to keep Bragg from 
noticing what was going on elsewhere.- During the last days of 
August and the first four of September, Rosecrans began march-" 
ing his army over Raccoon Mountain. By the eighth of Septem- 
ber his movements were completed, and Bragg perceiving too 
late what had taken place evacuated Chattanooga and moved to 
Lafayette, twenty-five miles south of Chattanooga and at the 
southern point of Chickamauga Hill. On the 9th of September 
the Federal troops moved into Chattanooga. But Bragg had re- 
treated for a-purpose. He was by no means beaten, nor did he 
intend to withdraw permanently. He had left Chattanooga to 
cover his line of communications and to find his enemy. But 
Rosecrans here made his great mistake. He thought Bragg’s 
forces were disorganized, and divided up his army to hold various 
points. In all the Union forces were scattered over about fiity- 
seven miles with no more than 20,000 in any one place. Under 
these conditions Rosecrans woke the twelfth of September to 
find himself facing Bragg’s whole army, with reinforcements till 
it numbered at least 55,000. As rapidly as possible Rosecrans- 
began to assemble his army but the delay of General McCook’s 
forces prevented his gaining a position of advantage. Hence, 
when the battle was begun by Bragg, Rosecrans was at a dis- 
advantage both as to forces and location. The resulting battle 
was one of the worst of the war—the Battle of Chickamagua. 
It was in this battle that General Thomas gained his nickname 


“Rock of Chickamauga.” “For six ‘long hours, he with 25,000 


men bore the brtint of the battle. Sixty thousand rebels attacked 
his position again and again, only to fall back. But Thomas 
rode among his men, cool but determined, defending his position, 
the Rossville Road. When evening came on, the defenders found 


THIRD QUARTER ~— 101 


their ammunition exhausted, and tfe forces had te .zsort to 
their bayonets. But when night put an end to the fight, Thomas 
still held the Rossville Road; and the Union Army was saved 
from destruction. On the 22nd of September it retired to 
Chattanooga. 

The Indian meaning of Chickamauga is ‘Valley of Death,” 
and the place had now surely earned its title. In all the Civil 
War, it was the largest except Gettysburg and the Wilderness. 
There were about 130,000 men engaged with about 37,000 killed, 
wounded or missing. Rosecrans had about 62,000 men, Bragg 
about 70,000. The Union lost about 17,000 while the Confederates 
about 20,000, most of them in the attacks on Thomas’ forces at 
Horseshoe Ridge. 


382. Grant Made Commander-in-Chief,, 


After the Battle of Chickamauga: Roseérans sith ety to 
Chattanooga, where he was beseiged by Bragg. On the 19th day 
of October, Rosecrans was removed from command of the Army 
of the Cumberland and Grant was called from Mississippi and 
placed in command of all the forces between the Mississippi 
River and the Alleghenies. Thomas was given Rosecrans’ place 
as commander of the Army of the Cumberland. Sherman was 
given Grant’s place as commander of the Army of thé Tennessee, 
while Rosecrans was sent to Missouri. 

There were now but two large Confederate armies—one at 
Richmond under Lee, and one in northern Georgia under General 
Joseph E. Johnston, who had taken Bragg’s forces. 

Early in 1864, Grant was made lieutenant general of all the 
armies of the United States. His orders were to capture 
Richmond and destroy Lee’s forces in Virginia ; General Sherman 
in the West was ordered to move upon General Johnston and 
capture Georgia. 


383, From the Rapidan to Petersburg. 


After the Battle of Gettysburg, which was fought just north 
_ of the Maryland line in Pennsylvania, Lee’s Army was forced 
to retreat south. In this retreat they were followed by the 
Union Army, now under the command of Grant. To understand 
the fighting which followed, we must knew something of the 
nature of the location. The Rapidan is a small river, which is 
the southern one of the two forks of the Rappahanock River, 
which roughly parallels the James River to the South, both empty- 
ing into the Chesapeake Bay. 

Crossing the Rapidan River, Grant’s army entered the 
Wilderness, which was a stretch of country covered wtih a low 
growth of oak, pine and other brush. Here Lee attacked 


102 THIRD QUARTER 


Grant, but was unable to*check him, and he moved on to 
Spottsylvania, where the two armies fought for several days, 
and Grant lost thousands of his men, but could not defeat the 
enemy. He moved on to Cold: Harbor, where a terrible battle 
was fought, and Grant was beaten back. Lee took up his posi- 
tion in Richmond which was strongly ‘fortified, and Grant 
moved on and took up his position opposite Petersburg, which. 
formed part of the defense of Richmond on the south. Grant 
made a dash on Petersburg, but was repulsed. A few days 
later he tried it again, and was repulsed a second time. He 
now knew that if he ever hoped to take the place, he would 
have to lay siege to it as he had done at Vicksburg. General 
Lee sent General Early to threaten Washington, and if pos- 
sible to take it. He did this in order to draw Grant from the 
siege of Richmond. When Early reached Washington, he 
found the fortifications stronger than he had expected. He 
then had to retreat up the Shenandoah Valley. The Confed- 
erates seized all the horses and cattle they could find, robbed 
banks and secured a great deal of booty. This of course would 
be of great value to the Confederates, for they were running 
short of all sorts of supplies. Early felt perfectly safe, for 
no troops had been sent against him. He then ordered a 
body of troops to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania. When the 
troops arrived, they demanded that the citizens of Chambers- 
burg should give them $100,000 in gold. They refused, and 
the troops burned Chambersburg. General Grant now sent 
General Sheridan to deal with Early. The two generals met 
at Winchester, September 19th. A sharp battle was fought, in 
which Early was defeated. Three days later they met again, 
and a battle was fought at Fisher’s Hill, and Early was de- 
feated a second time. Early received reinforcements, and while 
Sheridan was away, he made an attack on Sheridan’s army 
at Cedar Creek, and was driving it in confusion, when Sheri- 
dan unexpectedly arrived, gathered his men together, turned 
on the Confederates and routed them with great slaughter. 
In fact, he completely destroyed Early’s army. This was the 
last time the Confederates made an attempt to threaten Wash- » 
ington. 

When Grant saw there was nothing else to do, he decided to 
lay seige to Petersburg. This campaign had cost Grant dearly 
in time and men. He with 50,000 men had entered the Wilder- 
ness in May, 1864. It was almost a year later that saw Lee’s 
surrender, April 2, 1865. Here was seen some of the bloodiest 
battles of the war. In twenty minutes the Union lost 8,000 men 
at Cold Harbor, yet Grant saw it as the only means to the end, 
and telegraphed Lincoln, “I propose to fight it out on this line 


THIRD QUARTER 103 


if it takes all summer.” And fight it out he did, not only through 
the summer, and fall, but even through the next winter. The 
first six weeks cost Grant nearly 40,000 men and Lee not half so 
‘. many, yet Grant knew the North could-—afford the sacrifice of 
men and provisions, while the South could not. It was merely 
wearing down their resistance by the weight of overwhelming 
numbers. The South was becoming drained of men and supplies, 
while every day the blockade of Southern ports was becoming 
more effective. 


384, From Chattanooga to Atlanta, 


Sherman marched from Cattanooga to take Atlanta, 
which was an important railway center for the Confederates. 
They had only two places of power left; one, was at Rich- 
mond, Virginia, under Lee, the other, at Dalton, Georgia, 
under Johnston. 

Sherman on May 4, 1864, marched direct from Chatta- 
nooga against Johnston at Dalton, Georgia. Johnston was 
defeated, and retreated step by step toward Atlanta. Shortly 
before reaching Atlanta, the Confederate government re- 
moved Johnston, and put Hood in command. Hood made 
several attacks on Sherman’s army, but was repulsed every . 
time with great loss. At last Hood could not hold Atlanta 
any longer and Sherman took the place September 2, 1864, 
and Hood started northward. Sherman fired Atlanta, spared 
nothing, but the dwellings and churches. The loss of Atlanta 
was a great blow to the Confederates. Sherman now left At- 
lanta, and set out for the sea coast throught the heart of the 
Confederacy. 

When Sherman marched on Atlanta, he had about 100,000 
seasoned men, while Johnston opposed him with 65,000. The 
three most severe battles were at Resaca, Dallas, and Kenesaw 
Mountain in May and June of 1864. The farther Sherman ad- 
vanced, the smaller grew his forces, for he had to leave some 
each time to guard the places taken. President Davis had a per- 
sonal dislike for Johnston, so removed him and put Hood in 
his place. Hood rashly made three furious attacks on Sherman’s 
Army and was repulsed with heavy losses each time. Finally, 
he was forced to withdraw his forces and give over Atlanta. 

Note—Locate each place mentioned. 


385. From Atlanta to the Sea. 


After burning Atlanta, Sherman started in November, 1864, 
on his march to the sea. He had an army of 60,000 men. The 
troops went in four columns, covering a belt sixty miles 
wide. . They lived on the country through which they trav- 


104 THIRD QUARTER 


eled and so strong was his army that the Confederates could 
not check him. He marched directly through the granary of 
the South, burnt bridges, tore up railroads, and destroyed 
every thing that came in his way. Fort McAllister defended 
Savannah, but it was soon taken and Sherman entered Sa- 
vannah December 21, 1864. 

When Hood left Atlanta, he marched into Tennessee with 
50,000 hoping that Sherman would follow him and thus get him 
(Sherman) out of Georgia. But Sherman had no idea of giving 
up Georgia. Instead he sent Thomas, the Rock of Chickamauga, 
with part of his army to take“€are of Hood’s activities around 
Nashville. Thomas delayed so long in attacking Hood that: he 
was very nearly removed and his men given to Logan. Fortun- 
ately this was not done, for Thomas knew what he was doing, 
and December 15 and 16 he fought a battle at Nashville, com- 
pletely overpowering Hood’s forces. This was one of the most 
decisive victories of the war, for the Confederate Army in the 
West was completely broken up, and Sherman could now start 
on his march to the sea, unhampered by attacking Confederate 
forces. Sherman’s plans were to march to the sea, thereby 
cutting the Confederacy in two, then to march north, and join 
Grant for the attack on Richmond. ‘This covered more than 
1,000 miles of march, through hostile country. As Sherman’s men - 
advanced, they not only tore up the railroads but heated the rails 
red hot and twisted them around trees, to keep the Confederates 
from rebuilding the road. Sherman’s march to the sea was one 
of the grim necessities of war. Through the very richest districts 
of the South, he laid waste an area of sixty miles from Atlanta 
to Savannah. Factories were burned, cotton and all munitions of 
war were destroyed, machine shops dismantled, railroads de- 
stroyed; even the crops and farm animals were consumed or 
carried off. Sherman knew the South would never give up as 
long as men and supplies lasted. He deemed it less brutal to 
destroy the supplies than to mow down the men in battle. But 
the mark of this raid still lasts in the South today. Plantations 
abandoned and destroyed at that time, still lie desolate. Looking 
back at it now we may feel much of it was needless, for it struck 
not only at the Army, but at the home life, the women and chil- 
dren of the Confederacy. Sherman was thorough—it is said a 
crow flying over the devastated area would have to carry its own 
provisions. One writer in speaking of depredations in Belgium 
said that no greed, no lust, no cruelty equalled that of a victorious, — 
conquering army. That was as true in 1864 as in 1916. The 
army foraged the country—the inhabitants were sure to suffer. 

December 12th, 1864, Sherman reached Savannah. December 
24, 1864, the city surrendered. Sherman sent Lincoln a telegram 


‘ 


THIRD QUARTER 105 


presenting Savannah as a Christmas gift with one hundred fifty 
guns, about 25,000 bales of cotton, and plenty of ammunition. 
Note—Have pupils draw a map of Sherman’s march. 


386. From Petersburg to Appomattox. 


Grant laid siege to Petersburg. It lasted for ten months. 
The. Union army thought they could gain entrance into Peters- 
burg if they could blow up one of the forts in front of the 
place. They, therefore, dug a mine, and placed eight thousand 
pounds of powder in it, and July 30, 1864, just at dawn, the 
powder was fired. Three. hundred men, several cannons and 
great_masses of earth were thrown high into the air. The 
Union soldiers thought they could rush through this gap and 
enter Petersburg, but they were repulsed with ‘terrible slaugh- 
ter. The Petersburg mine was a failure. When the year 1864 
closed, the siege of Petersburg was still in progress, but Grant 
finally took it April 2, 1865, after a great many battles had 
been fought, and on the 3d of April, 1865, the Union soldiers 
entered Richmond. 

When Lee left Richmond, he intended to retreat and unite 
his forces, now reduced to 28,000, with Johnston. But at 
Appomattox Court House, it was hemmed in by the Union forces. 


387. Lee Surrenders at Appomattox. 


On April 2d, Lee evacuated Richmond, and Grant entered 
the place and hoisted the old flag over the city. Lee and his 
army tried to escape to the mountains, but the Union cavalry 
hotly pursued them, and Sheridan placed his army across their 
path at Appomattox Court House. Lee knew he was sur- 
rounded and surrendered to Grant, April 9, 1865, at Appo- 
mattox Court House. aire 

Jefferson Davis, the president of the Conradceey was 
_ captured and put in prison at Fort Monroe, but was released 
in 1867. 

After Lee had surrendered, the remainder of the Con- 
federacy rapidly went to pieces.. As soon as Johnston heard 
of Lee’s surrender, he knew it was useless for him to try to 
hold out any longer, therefore he surrendered to Sherman 
near Raleigh, North Carolina, April 26, 1865. (Grant treated 
the Confederate soldiers very generously. He ordered twen- 
ty-five thousand rations of food to be given to Lee’s men, who 
were almost starved. He allowed each soldier to keep his” 
horse. All he asked of the-Confederates was to obey the Fed- 
eral laws, to lay down their arms, and return to their homes. 
Grant undoubtedly showed great nobleness of soul. 


106 THIRD QUARTER 


388. The Confederate Troops Go to Their Homes, 


The parting of Lee with his troops was one of the touching 
incidents of the war. When he bade his men good-bye, he said, 
“We have fought through the war together, and I have done the 
best I could for you.” Hardened veterans of many campaigns 
as they were, many wept audibly. Lee, himself with tears on his 
cheeks, advised the men to return home quietly, to resume their 
old life in so far as was possible, and to do their part in helping 
restore the Union. He argued that the question had been decided 
by war—that overwhelming numbers had won, and as men they 
must abide by the decision. He himself followed his advice to 
his men. He later became President of Washington and Lee 
. University at Lexington, Virginia. He died here in 1870. 

Grant gave the Confederates their horses, telling them they 
would need them in the spring plowing. But the men when they | 
returned in many cases found their families scattered, their homes 
in ruins, and courage and confidence gone. 


389. The Grand Review at Washington. 


When the war closed, the Union Army numbered more than 
1,000,000 soldiers. The plan at first was to disband the army at 
once, but it was later decided to have a Grand Review in 
Washington first. May 23-4, 1865, Grant and Sherman’s troops 
met in Washington, the first time since the beginning of the 
war that the armies of the East and West had come together. 
For two days the avenue from the Capitol to the White House 
was filled by a column over thirty miles long. No such sight 
had ever been seen in America before. As one officer put it, it 
was worth ten years of life to be able to say, “I was there.” 

Within a few weeks the great army was scattered to their 
homes—all except about 50,000 kept as a standing army. 


SOME NON-MILITARY MATTERS. 


390. The Trent Affair. 


James M. Mason and John Slidell had been sent by Presi- 
dent Davis as diplomatic representatives of the Confederacy to 
Great Britain and France. These two men with their families 
and assistant$ managed to get out of Charleston Harbor Novem- 
ber 12th, 1861 on the steamer, Theodora, which landed them 
safely in Cuba. November 7, 1861 they left Cuba for St. 
Thomas, and from here they expected to proceed to England. 
For this trip, they boarded the British mail steamer “Trent.” 
It so happened that at this time Captain Charles Wilkes of the 
United States warship, Sam Jacinto, was in Cuban waters look- — 


THIRD QUARTER 107 


ing for the Sumter, a Confederate vessel. When Wilkes heard 
that Mason and Slidell were in Havana, Cuba, he decided he 
had the right to board any neutral ship to look for contrabands 
of war, and to sieze the persons or papers hostile to his govern- 
ment. Therefore, he waited for the “Trent” in the Bahama 
Channel the day after she left Havana. When the commander 
of the Trent refused to stop, Wilkes fired across her bow. The 
vessel then stopped. Lieutenant Fairfax of the San Jacinto with 
some marines went aboard the Trent and forcibly removed 
Mason and Slidell and their secretaries. They were brought by 
the San Jacinto to Fortress Monroe, then to Boston Harbor, and 
confined in Fort Warren. But Wilkes failed to secure any 
papers which the men might have carried, and their families 
proceeded to England. 

News of the capture reached Washington the 16th, and 
London on the 30th. At first the North loudly approved of the 
action and the House of Representatives passed a vote of thanks. 
But in London it was denounced as an insult to the British flag, 
and the government demanded in no uncertain terms instant 
release of the prisoners with a suitable apology. War between 
the United States and England seemed imminent, but Lincoln, 
and his Secretary of State, Seward, had cool heads, while our 
envoy in London, Mr. Charles Francis Adams was a very tactful 
man, ‘Then, too, the London representative in Washington, 
Lord Lyons, was a just man, friendly to the United States. Mr. 
Seward as soon as he heard the news, assured Mr. Adams that 
Wilkes had acted without any authority from Washington and 
that our government was ready to discuss the occurrance at the 
pleasure of the British Government. The British insisted that 
the act of Wilkes was illegal because he* had taken envoys out 
of a British vessel without the authority of the United States. 
This left a way clear for the United States to settle the matter 
without loss of dignity, so the prisoners were promptly released 
and sent on their way to Great Britain. 

The South was much disappointed over the outcome for 
they had hoped to involve the North in a war with England 
thus making more certain victory for the Confederate armies. 


391. The Draft. 


When.the war first began boys and men rushed to volunteer 
but as the calls came for more and still more men, volunteers 
were not so numerous. At last it reached the stage where it was 
necessary to draft men. Under the Federal draft law of 1863 
each state was compelled to furnish a certain number of men. 
Then it was decided by lot who should go. One bad feature 
of the law was that for $300 you could hire someone to go in 


108 THIRD QUARTER 


your place if you did not wish to go yourself. This really ex- 
empted the wealthy and forced the poor into going. Riots broke 
out in New York, and many lives lost. 45 

Drafting had been going on in the South for some time, 
till by 1863 almost every able-bodied man was in the army 
service. . 


392. The Emancipation Proclamation. 


Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation on New 
Year’s Day, 1863. This proclamation set forever free all 
slaves, held in the states then fighting against the Union. 
The slaves had been a great help to the Confederates, for 
they could stay on the plantations and work, while their mas- 
ters were at the front fighting. This proclamation could only 
be enforced where the Union army gained control, and did 
not apply to the slave states that remained in the Union. Lin- 
coln’s object in issuing the proclamation was to weaken the 
Confederacy. By this proclamation over three millions of 
negroes received their freedom. 

Abroad, it had the effect of making it possible for the 
masses of people to give the Confederacy their moral support. 

The South had fought so long, and with such great brav- 
ery that the European nations began to think she might suc- 
ceed, and there was danger that they might go so far as to 
recognize her. But after the emancipation proclamation was 
issued it practically destroyed the possibility of any nation 
recognizing the Confederacy. 

The ruling classes in England had favored the South from 
the beginning, because there was much in common between 
the type of life led by the Southern planter and that led by 
the British country lord or squire. They denied that the 
war was a war to destroy slavery ; and, so long as Lincoln and 
his advisers maintained the same position, it was easy for the - 
middle and laboring classes to be deceived. The appearance 
of the Emancipation Proclamation compelled all to realize 
that the war had become one to wipe out slavery. The ruling 
classes still sympathized with the Southern cause, but the 
attitude of the middle and laboring classes was openly and 
. demonstratively in favor of the cause of freedom. Politicians 
always try to court the popular favor and so now the ruling 
eee were forced to frown upon any open support of the 

outh. 

Probably other nations were less influenced by the Eman- 
cipation Proclamation than was England. But Russia was 
friendly, and France dared not act without the support of 
England, consequently the attitude of England was all im-. 


se " ui 
at 


THIRD QUARTER 109 


portant. From 1863 the British government began to give 
the United States less and less cause for complaint. This 
changed attitude is largely traceable to the profound anti- 
slavery sympathy of the majority of the English nation. This 
influence could only make itself felt after Lincoln had spoken. 


393. Sanitary and Christian Commissions. 


The women of New York formed the first sanitary com- 
mission a few days after Fort Sumter was fired upon. They 
met at Coopers Union under the leadership of Miss Louisa Lee 
Schuyler, to form a relief society. This was the foundation for 
the United States Sanitary Commission which did in the Civil 
War much the same that the Red Cross did in the World War. 
From fairs held all over the North more than $3,000,000 
were raised for the relief of soldiers. Many women went to 
the front as nurses; others worked at home, in the fields, in 
aid societies, or in every other possible way in which they might 
be of aid. The various societies were known as Christian or 
Sanitary Commission Auxiliaries, 

The South showed the same devotion to their soldiers; their 
' sacrifice was even greater for their means were more limited. 


394. A National Banking Law. 


In December, 1862, one of the most far-reaching financial 
measures of the war was enacted. This was the National 
Banking Act.. Two objects were obtained. A uniform and 
safe currency was Bcvied for the government and it Secured 
a market for the National Bonds. It arranged so that banks 
could buy National Bonds, and on depositing them in the 
Treasury at Washington, receive in return “National Bank 
Notes” to the extent of 90 per cent of their par value. These 
notes were not to be in excess of 90 per cent of their market 
value. Thus the banks were induced to buy government 
bonds, for they received interest not only upon the bonds, but 
also upon the National Bank notes which they loaned to 
others. 


395. Presidential Campaign of 1864. 


~The levies for new troops which Lincoln had been forced 
to make caused bitter feeling against him and in the cam- 
paign of 1864, the “Peace Democrats” denounced openly the 
war both at political gatherings and in Congress. The Demo- 
cratic party was controlled by men who were opposed to con- 
tinuing the war. The main things charged against Lincoln 
by them were: 


110 THIRD QUARTER 


The draft. 

Violating the Constiution. 
Removing McClellan. 
Continuing the war. 
Imprisoning men without trial. 
Refusal to exchange prisoners. 
Freeing slaves. 

. Accepting negro soldiers. 

The Democrats nominated Geo. B. McClellan for Presi- 
dent and George H. Pendleton for Vice President. 

The Union National Party as the Republicans were 
called during this election, named Lincoln for President and 
Andrew Johnson for Vice President. Some of the more radi- 
cal slavery men did not want Lincoln. They thought he was 
too slow or that he would let the war end on terms unfavor- 
able to the North. So they nominated Fremont, but he with- 
drew before the election to keep from splitting up the Republi- 
can vote. 

The canvass was short and the result never in serious . 
doubt. The states generally had passed laws permitting the 
soldiers to vote and they voted overwhelmingly for Lincoln. 
Their vote was not needed, however, for without their vote 
Lincoln carried all the states but New Jersey, Delaware, and 
Kentucky, receiving a total of 214 electoral votes, while Mc- 
Clellan received only 21. (Of course the seceded states took 
no part in the election.) 

Lincoln’s popular vote was much larger than it was in 
1860. In that year he had received only 1,866,452 votes out 
of a total of 4,682,066; while in 1864 he received 2,213,665 out 
of a total vote of 4,166,537. In 1860, Lincoln received only a 
minority of the votes, but in 1864 he had a clear majority 
over all. , The election showed also that in spite of the heavy 
loss of life during four years of Civil War, the total male popu- 
lation of voting age had increased very noticeably. The total 
vote of the Northern states alone in 1864 was nearly as large 
as the vote of the entire United States in 1860. 

The Republicans had regained the seats in Congress 
which they had lost in 1862 and added so many more that they 
commanded more than two-thirds vote in each house. With 
this majority they could pass the proposed amendment to the 
Constitution prohibiting slavery throughout the United 
States. As it turned out, they also had a majority sufficient to 
pass laws over a president’s veto. 


ee Sear oe 


THIRD QUARTER 111 


396. England’s Attitude Toward the Southern Confederacy. 


England in May, 1861, issued a “proclamation of neutrality,” 
wherein she recognized the South as belligerents. This. does not 
mean that England recognized the Confederacy as a separate 
government, but that the rights of a waring nation could be 
claimed by her. Her soldiers, if captured, were to have all the 
rights of prisoners of war; this was also true of her sailors, The ' 
North felt that:Great Britain.had been too hasty in taking this — 
attitude, but events in a way forced it upon England. While . 
the Government outwardly tried to maintain an attitude of 
neutrality, there was no doubt that the ruling class in England 
and for that matter in all Europe were unfriendly to the Northern 
cause. One writer has estimated that four-fifths of the House 
of Lords and the majority of the House of Commons would: have 
been glad to see the Union broken up and our Republican 
government proved a failure. John Bright was one of the few 
great Englishmen of his day who ardently sympathized with 
Lincoln and his struggle for the North. 

But if the North lacked the:support of the upper class in 
England the lower class were strongly for the North and the. 
Union. When the exportation of cotton stopped, it meant many 
cotton mills in England were closed and many poor were thrown 
out of work, but their sympathies remained. wholly with the 
North. When Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation 
they were very much pleased, and their attitude kept the English 
government from taking. any steps in aiding the South. 
Napoleon IIT of France urged England to aid the Confederacy, 
but Queen Victoria urged delay, knowing how the great ma- 
jority of her laboring class felt about the war in the States. 
Napoleon tried to act as mediator between the North and South, 
but his offer met with cold reception. 


397. ‘‘Cotton is King.’’ 


In 1784, eight bags of cotton was shipped to England from 
Charleston, South Carolina. It was the first cotton shipment 
ever made from the United States. But in time our nation came 
to supply the raw product that kept busy the looms and factories 
of all England and Europe. It was cotton that made slave labor 
so profitable in the South: Soon the exports reached such pro- 
portions that the South could proudly declare that “cotton is 
King.” 

in 1884, at new Orleans an exhibition was held to mark the 
one hundredth anniversary of the first exportation. of cotton. 
By 1880, the cotton crop amounted to 5,000,000 bales, or a little 
more than in 1860, the year before the outbreak of the war. 


2 


112 THIRD QUARTER 


In 1904, the output reached 13,700,000 bales. In 1914, it was” 
over 20,000,000 bales. In 1920, production fell back to about 
that of 1904, or 13,700,000 bales. ' 


398. The Alabama. 


The Alabama was a vessel commanded by Captain Semmes: 
in the Civil War. It was built in England for the Confederates, 
and used by them to destroy Northern commerce on the seas. 
Our minister to England at this time was Charles Frances Adams, | 
and he complained that in thus building ships for the Con- 


- federates, England was violating the International War Code. 


England knew for what purpose the ship was to be used when 
it was sold to the Confederates. After the war was over, we 
insisted that England pay us for the damages this ship did to 
our ships. When she refused, it looked as though we might 


/, face another war with England, but by the Geneva Conference, 


the United States was awarded $15,000,000 damages. This was 
paid, and trouble averted. 

The Alabama preyed upon Northern commerce for two 
years, and was finally caught in the English Channel by the 
Kearsarge and sunk June 19, 1864. 


399. Assassination of President Lincoln. 


President Lincoln was sitting in a box at Ford’s Theater, 
in Washington, when he was shet on the night of April 14, 
1865, by John Wilkes Booth. 

Booth quickly mounted a horse and rode away, but was 
hunted by soldiers, and at last found in a barn in Virginia. 
He was shot in his hiding place April 26, while resisting 
arrest. ) 

Booth, with a number of conspirators, intended to murder 
Lincoln, Grant, and the Members of the Cabinet. The con- 
Spirators were soon discovered, and either hanged or shot. 

Lincoln lived until the next morning April 15, 1865. An- 
drew Johnson acted as President during the remainder of the 
term. ; 


SERIOUS PROBLEMS. 
400. Disbanding the.Union Army. 


One of the first problems confronting the Union was the 
disbanding of the army, now numbering more than 1,000,000 
men. Late in May, a grand review of Grant’s and Sherman’s 
troops took place in Washington. In a few weeks, these men 
had all scattered and gone peaceably to their homes to take up 
the duties they had dropped at the call of their country. About 


THIRD QUARTER 113 


50,000 were kept as a standing army, while all the rest were 
disbanded. About 175,000 Confederate troops were disbanded 
after Lee’s surrender, 


401. The Great National Debt. 


1. The war cost nearly a million able bodied men. 

2. During the war the national government had spent 
over $3,000,000; besides, a great amount of property such as 
houses, barns, railroads, ships, and entire cities had been de- 
stroyed ; to say nothing about the great sums of money, that 
has been paid in pensions ever since. 

During the close of Buchanan’s administration, the credit 
of the Government was on the decline. The Treasury was 
empty, custom receipts small, and the national debt increas- 
ing. Bonds sold for as low as $85 on the $100. 

In July, 1861, when Congress met, it at once took steps to 
remedy the financial situation. $250,000,000 was borrowed - 
on bonds, tariff rates were raised, a direct tax of $20,000,000 
was levied, while a tax of 3 per cent on incomes over $800 
was levied. 

In the meantime, the national debt increased and the 
credit decreased. When war broke out, most of the United 
States money was gold. There was also paper money which 
‘ had been issued by over 1500 state banks. 

~The situation was made worse by Congress allowing 
paper currency to be issued, which the government promised 
- to redeem in gold on demand. During the last of 1861, the 
demand for gold came so heavy that the gold was exhausted 
and “suspension of specie payments” followed. It was never 
resumed till in 1879. In 1862, the government was in such 
need of money that “United States Notes” were issued with- 
out any promises as to time or form of payment. To make 
people accept them they were made legal tender. $300,000,000 
of these were issued in 1862 and $152,000,000 in 1863. The 
results were disastrous. Silver currency almost disappeared 
from circulation and paper money for fifty and twenty-five 
_ cents and even smaller sums were issued. There was almost — 
daily change in the value of the notes, and no one knew what 
he was worth. 

In 1862, bonds to the Pale of $500,000,000 at 6 per cent 
interest, payable in from five to twenty years, were issued. 
In July, 1862, a wide reaching internal revenue law was 
passed, taxes were laid upon many manufactured articles, 
and fees were charged people in many occupations. Corpora- 
tions were taxed upon their gross receipts, and a stamp tax 
which must be placed upon all legal documents. At the begin- 


114 THIRD QUARTER 


ning of 1863, the revenue from taxation was still very inade- 
quate, bond sales were few and legal tenders were much below 
their face value. The government expenses were about 
$2,500,000 per day, while its income was about $600,000. 

But one of the greatest good that came from the necessity 
to raise money came through the tariff which was levied. 
In 1860, the rate was 20 per cent, in 1862, 37 per cent, and in 
1864, 47 per cent. 

These new rates were placed temporarily but they stimu- 
lated home production, and when later it was found unneces- 
sary to levy them, manufacturers protested so that they have 
remained at the same level since 1875, until the present ad- 
ministration, which has almost done away with them entirely. 


402. Amendments to the Constitution. 
THE THIRTEENTH AMENDMENT. 


The provisions of the Thirteenth Amendment are: | 

Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a 
punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly 
convicted, shall exist within the United States or any place 
subject to their jurisdiction. 

Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
propriate legislation. 

The Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution was de- 
clared in force in December, 1865. By the Emancipation Proc- 
lamation the slaves were set free in the states that were at 
war against the Union, but by the Thirteenth Amendment 
slavery was abolished in every state in the Union. 

The Thirteenth Amendment had been proposed early in 
January, 1864, and after much careful consideration ‘was 
passed by the necessary two-thirds majority in the Senate. 
but on June 15 it failed to pass the House—receiving only 
ninetv-five votes with sixty-six votes against it. As this was 
less than two-thirds. no further action was taken until after 
the election. As the final ending of slavery had been made 
a prominent issue in the campaign that year. and as the Re- 
publicans had carried the elections so overwhelmingly, Con- 
gress soon after it convened in December. 1864, reopened the 
matter. This time the opposition was silenced and on Janu- 
ary 21, 1865, it passed the House by 121 for to 24 against. ; 

The people throurhout the country were ready for the 
complete destruction of slavery. The various state legisla- 
tures nromptlv ratified the proposed amendment. Before the 
end of the year two-thirds of all the states had: ratified the 
amendment, and on December 18, 1865, it was proclaimed as 


2 


THIRD QUARTER 116 


part of the federal Constitution. It was the first amendment 
in more than sixty years. Several had been proposed, but all 
had failed. The federal Constitution is not easily amended, 
and the ease and rapidity with which this amendment was 
adopted shows how ready the nation was for the step. 


“= Tue FourTEenTtTH AMENDMENTA 2." ECL 


Tn June, 1866, Congress passed the Fourteenth Amend- 
ment to the Constitution. A law passed by one Congress can 
be repealed by another and, for fear a succeeding Congress 
might take away the rights granted to the negroes under the 
“Civil Rights” Bill, Congress was anxious for the Fourteenth 
Amendment. 

This amendment guaranteed equal civil rights to all re- 
gardless of race or color. It based representation on the 
number of voters; if a state refused to allow its negroes to 
vote, its representation would be lessened. 

The President disapproved these measures, but the 


-amendment was sent to, the states for ratification and it was 


not until 1868 that a sufficient number ratified it, and it be- 
came a part of the Constitution and a law that Congress 
could not repeal. 

No Southern states ratified this amendment, except Ten- 
nessee. 


PLAN FINALLY ADOPTED By CONGRESS. 


In the spring of 186%, Congress passed another bill over 
the President's veto. This new law divided the South into 
districts, each of which was to be governed by a military gov- 
ernor. The “freedmen” were given the right to vote, but 
that right was denied to all those white inhabitants who had 
taken a prominent part in the war against the Union. Each 
state was to continue under this form of government until 
the people of the states—black as well as white—should form 
a government accepting the Fourteenth Amendment to the 
Constitution —From Montgomery’s Leading Facts of American 
History. Ginn and Company, Publishers. p. 339. 


FIFTEENTH AMENDMENT. 


The Fifteenth Amendment was declared in force, in 
March, 1870. It gave the negroes the right to vote. 

The provisions of this amendment are: The rights of 
citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or | 
abridged by the United States, or by any state, on account of 
race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 


116 THIRD QUARTER 


Congress shall have power to enforce this article by ap- 
propriate legislation. 

It was proposed by Congress in 1869, and was passed by 
- Congress by a vote of thirty-nine to thirteen in the Senate and 
by one hundred and forty-four to forty in the House. It was 
ratified by twenty-nine of the thirty-seven states and’ was ACee 
clared in force March 30, 1870. 


403. Enforcing the Monroe Doctrine. 


Napoleon III, of France, and the Emperor of Austria 
took advantage of our Civil War and tried to establish an em- 
pire in Mexico, in place of the republic. Maximilian, a brother 
of the ruler of Austria, was made emperor. This was a vio- 
lation of the Monroe Doctrine. The President, Johnson in 1863: 
sent troops to the Rio Grande, and ordered France to take her 
troops from Mexico.. France obeyed, and the Mexicans captured . 
Maximilian, shot him, and restored the Mexican Republic. 


404. The Problem of Reconstruction. 


Reconstruction was begun by President Lincoln late in 
1863, and was continued by President Johnson. This means 
restoring the seceded states to their former places in the 
Union. The great problem before the government just at 
that time, was how to reconstruct the state governments of 
the seceded states, also how to re-admit them to their share 
in the nation’s government. 

The President, Johnson, issued a proclamation of pardon May 
29, 1865, to the greater part of the people of the seceded states 
on condition that they would swear to “faithfully support, 
protect and defend the Constitution and the Union.” A ma- 
jority of the inhabitants of those states took the oath. They 
furthermore bound themselves to accept the Thirteenth 
Amendment to the Constiution, which prohibited slavery, and 
they agreed never to demand payment of any part of the 
Southern war debt. 

Now came the question whether these States should be 
at once permitted to send Representatives to Congress. The 
President said, Yes; but a majority in Congress said, No. The 
reason for this denial was that the greater part of Congress 
believed that it would not be safe to restore the Southern 
states to their full political rights until more was done to pro- 
tect the negroes or “freedmen,” as they were now called, in 
the enjoyment of their new liberty. 

From this time forward the President and Congress were 
engaged in a bitter strife with each other. Congress refused 
to re-admit the Southern states, and passed a number of bills 


THIRD QUARTER 117 


in favor of the “freedmen,” one of which made them citizens, 
another gave them military protection, while a third granted 
them power to vote in the District of Columbia. The Presi- 
dent believed that the South would deal fairly by the “freed- 
men,” and therefore vetoed these bills; Congress then passed 
them over the veto.— Montgomery's Leading Facts of American 
History. Ginn and Company, Publishers. p. 338. 


405. Great Disorder in the Southern States. 


The actual government of the South now fell into the 
hands of four classes: 

1. Southern people who had sympathized with the 
Union, and who had been banished during the war, and a 
few who had been Confederates, but now gave in to the 
Union. These were called “scalawags.” 

2. Carpet baggers, or Northerners who went South after 
the war. 

3. Negroes. 

4, Some few Southerners who had never been active 
heretofore in politics. 

The Republican was the dominent politica] party in each 
state. 


NEGRO LEGISLATORS AND “CARPET-BAGGERS.” 


In some of the restored states, especially in South Caro- 
lina, there were more negroes than white men. The negroes 
now got control of these states. They had been slaves all 
their lives, and were so ignorant that they did not even know 
the letters of the alphabet. Yet they now sat in the state 
legislatures, and made the laws. After the war many in- 
dustrious Northern men settled in the South; but, besides 
these, certain greedy adventurers went there eager to get 
political office and political spoils. These_‘‘Carpet-Baggers,” 
as they were called, used the ignorant “freedmen” as tools 
. to carry out their own selfish purposes. The result was that 
the negro legislators, under the direction of the “Carpet- 
Baggers,” plundered. and, for the time, well nigh ruined the 
states, that had the misfortune to be subject to their rule. 

After a time the white population throughout the South 
resolved that they would no longer endure this state of 
things. Partly by peaceable and partly by violent means, 
they succeeded in getting the political power in their own 
hands, and the reign of the “Carpet-Bagger” and the negro 
came to an end.—Montgomery’s Leading Facts of American His- 
tory. Ginn and Campany, Publishers. pp. 339, 340. 


118 THIRD QUARTER 


406. Purchase of Alaska. 


In 1867, Alaska was bought from Russia for $7,200,000. In 
derision it was called ‘“Seward’s Icebox,” and people could 
not understand why Secretary Seward wished the United 
States to purchase it. It was at that time valued for its seal 
fisheries, but later, the gold mined there has many times over- 
paid for the land. Because of its northern location, 55° to 71° 
north latitude, its climate is very cold. Its southern shores 
are made warmer by the warm current from the. Pacific 
Ocean which washes them. Its area is 591,000 square miles. 
Its main products are: seals, fish, lumber, and gold. 


407. Reseaihene s Bureau. 


In March 1865, Congress established a. Freedmen’s Bureau 
which was intended to provide for the needs of the blacks. It 
took care that the negro should receive just compensation for 
his labor, and ordered the government to sell land to the negroes 
on cheap terms so that they could get a start in the world. When 
the bill establishing the Freedmen’s Bureau went to President 
Johnson, he vetoed it, but it was passed over his veto before 
Congress adjourned. 


408. Impeachment and Trial of President Johnson. 

Johnson made his own plans of reconstruction while Con- 
gress was not in session in the summer and fall of 1865. But 
when Congress met in December, 1865, it refused to recog- 
nize Johnson’s plans. When the Southern: states sent their 
members of Congress they were refused their seats; this 
greatly angered Johnson, for he declared he had the power 
to decide when the state should be fully reconstructed. 

Johnson was elected to the Senate in 1857. When the 
Southern states seceded, he, of all the Southern Senators, did 
not go with his state, but remained loyal to the Union. From 
the time that the talk of secession began, he became very 
popular at the North because of his bold, vigorous speeches 
in favor of the Union, but was detested at the South. In 
one of these speeches he said that if he were President he 
would have the Southern leaders arrested and tried for treason,: 
and, if convicted, hanged. He declared repeatedly that the 
“traitors” should be “impoverished,” by which he meant their 
estates should be confiscated. 

We have already seen how, after the death of Lincoln, 
Johnson had so much to say both in public and private utter- 
ances about “traitors” and inflicting the death penalty that 
even the most radical of radical Republicans feared that he 


THIRD QUARTER 119 


would be entirely too severe in his treatment of the South. 
His utterances had so inflamed the North as to make such a 
magnanimous policy as Lincoln’s very difficult. 

Johnson retained Lincoln’s cabinet, among. whom was 
Seward, Secretary of State. Seward had been heartily in 
sympathy with Lincoln’s jolicy of leniency toward the South, 
and in the first three months of Johnson’s presidency suc- 
ceeded in winning him over to a most liberal plan of re- 
construction—one essentially the same as Lincoln’s. 

Thus we find that when Johnson actually got to the work 
of reconstruction, he tried to make it as easy as possibe for 
the seceded states to reorganize and resume constitutional 
relations with the Union. His amnesty proclamation was so 
liberal that all the seceded states were glad to avail themselves 
of its provisions, and reorganized their new governments im- 
mediately. 

President Johnson and Congress were in continual con- 
flict. Congress would not admit the Southern members to 
Congress; this gave the Republicans a two-thirds majority in 
both Houses and they were able to pass any bill over the 
President’s veto. 

In March, 1866, a “Civil Rights” Bill was passed over the 
President’s veto. This ‘Civil Rights” Bill gave the negro all 
the rights of citizenship, with privilege to sue in the national 
courts for any of these right if they were denied to him. 

“+ The House of Representatives has the sole power of 
aa 

The Senate. has the sole power to try all impeachments. 
When sitting for that purpose, they are on oath or affirmation. 
When the President of the United States is tried, the chief 
justice presides: and no person can be convicted without the con- 


At aman ve 


currence of two-thirds of the members present. 
ther than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold 
and enjoy any office of trust, honor, or profit under the United 
States; but the party convicted shall nevertheless be liable 
and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment 
according to law. Ft oe 

To prevent Johnson from removing from office men who did 
not favor his plans Congress passed the Tenure of Office Bill, 
This bill stated that the President could not remove them until 
the Senate had given permission. It wasn’t long until President 
Johnson denied this power of Congress, and removed Edwin 
Stanton, Secretary of War. Stanton had been appointed by 
Fae Lincoln. The Tenure of Office Act was repealed in 
1887. j : 


120 THIRD QUARTER —" — ", 


ARTICLES OF IMPEACHMENT; TRIAL AND Outcome. [ul 


Act, and was ordered to trial. The House of Representa 
had made the charge against him, and the Senators, with tl 
Chief Justice presiding, were to try the case. If two-thir 
of them would vote “guilty,” he would be removed from tI 


necessary for conviction ; he was therefore acquitted. 


409. Presidential Campaign of 1868. aia 
The Republicans nominated Gen. Grant for President, an 
Schuyler Colfax of Indiana for Vice Pfesident. These m 
supported the acts of Congress but denounced Johnson. Rak 
Horatio Seymour of New York was the Democrat nominee 
for President and Francis P. Blair of Missouri for V Vice Presi- 
dent. These men denounced the Acts of Congress in its recon- 
struction work, and blamed the Republicans for setting up ane 
negro rule in the South. Winky 
The Republican candidates were elected by a large majority, 
for most of the Southern votes were those of negroes, who 
naturally voted the Republican ticket. Grant received 214 
electoral votes and Seymour S80. at 
Nebraska had been admitted in 1867, therefore the oleae j 
37 states were counted, Texas, Virginia and Mississippi being 
ruled out. 


: 410. Laying the Atlantic Cable. 
A still more wonderful invention was to come. This Ww 
the Atlantic Cable which carried telegraph messages under th 
ocean between England and the United States. he lines £ 
reality were laid between Ireland and Newfoundland. | 
Experimenting along this line of telegraphing had 
carried on since 1857 by Cyrus W. Field. But even before F 


of Trenton New Jersey, and alsel by a noted scientist from 7 
ginia, Matthew Maurey. ue 


backed by Congress and well tars, he ee isi ere in 
1866 the cable was laid successfully, and permanent communi- 
cation established between the United States and the Old World. 


A CRITCIAL PERIOD, 


411, Completion of the Union Pacific. 


Along with the rapid increase of food stuffs came thé 
demand for better transportation facilities. Both farmers 


EIGHTH YEAR AGRICULTURE 
1. Give four reasons why farmers should raise poultry. Explain your 
reasons. 


4 


2. Name four classes of chickens. Name three breeds of each class. 
3. Write a eel paragraph on “Caring For and Feeding Young Chicks.” 


4. Why should birds be protected. Name 10 common birds that are use- 
ful. Make a list of bird en | 

5. Name four common dis seaSeS of poultry and tell how these diseases may 
be controlled. 


: ty . ‘ r 
Se ee Poa eee ne yi, tt Lh ne Ses mits SAS Po hoa 
. Wee oS RES Sent 82 Be Sh m Gey ohare Saat. pay 
’ ae -s xe - + at ; . eh * me sibs . 


THIRD QUARTER 121 


and manufactures were looking for a quicker and cheaper 
transportation for his products. The western settlers also 
wished better connections with the East. Great improve- 
ments began to be made on the roads. Steel rails replaced 
iron ones, engines were made heavier and speedier, and larger 
freight cars were built. Sleeping and dining cars were added 


_ to the service and wooden bridges were replaced by steel and 
iron ones. Up ’till the Civil War, railroads had been slow to 


push beyond the Mississippi River because the travel did not 


_ warrant the increase in expenditure. The Union Pacific was 


the first line to connect the Atlantic and Pacific coasts. It 
was finished in 1869. Since, many other trans-continental 


lines have been built. This increased activity in railroad 


building was at first in the Upper Mississippi Valley, but 
since the development of the South has taken place, the lines 


in the Lower Mississippi Valley have greatly increased in 


number. The first lines ran through the wheat regions of 
the North. 
Congress was anxious to build up the country and in 


1862 charters were granted to several companies to build 
railroads, and immense tracts of land lying along the rail- 
roads were given to these companies. Fifty millions of dol- 
lars was granted by Congress to the Union Pacific Railway 
Company who were to build west from Omaha, and to the 
_ Central Pacific who were to build east from Sacramento. At 
last in 1869 the two lines came together at Ogden, Utah. The 
- entire distance from the East to the West was over three 
thousand miles. A traveler can leave the Atlantic coast and 
reach the Pacific in about five days. Before the railroad was 
completed teas, spices, and silks from Asia had to reach us 
by sailing around Cape Horn, and would be received by us 


: almost six months after they had been loaded, but now they 
ean leave China, be landed in San Francisco, sent over the 


railroad to New York, all in about a month’s time. The 
_ Pacific Railroad led to the settlement of the country west of 
Wee Be pel it also developed fresh sources of industry. 


419, The Alabama Claims. 


It will be remembered that England built several ships 
for the Confederates. The “Alabama” was among the num- 
ber built. 

These ships would prey upon the American commerce. 
The United States demanded that England should pay for 
the damage done by these ships during the Civil War. 

The dispute was referred to a Board of Arbitration, com- 
posed of five members appointed one each by the United 


122 THIRD QUARTER 


States, Great Britain, Italy, Switzerland, and Brazil. They 
met at Geneva, Switzerland, and in 1872 awarded the United 


States $15,500,000 in gold for damages done by ships, which ~ 


were built in England for the Confederates. Great Britain 
paid the award within a year, and the money was ‘given to 
the ship owners who had had the loss. 


413, Carpet Baggers and Klu Klux Klan. 


In some of the restored states, especially in South Carolina, 
there were more negroes than white men. The negroes now got 


control of these states. They had been slaves all their lives, 


and were so ignorant that they did not even know the letters 
of the alphabet. Yet they now sat in the state legislatures, and 
made the laws. After the war many industrious Northern men 
settled in the South, but, besides these, certain greedy adventurers 
went there eager to get political office and political spoils. These 


“Carpet-Baggers,” as they were called, used the ignorant “freed-— 


men” as tools to carry out their own selfish purposes. The result 
was that the negro legislators, under the direction of the “Carpet- 
Baggers,” plundered and, for the time, well nigh ruined the states, 
that had the misfortune to be subject to their rule. 

After a time the white population throughout the South re- 
solved that they would no longer endure this state of things. 
Partly by peaceable and partly by violent means, they succeeded 
in getting the political power in their own hands, and the reign 
of the “Carpet-Bagger” and the negro came to an end— 
Montgomery's Leading Facts of American History. Ginn and 
Company, Publishers. pp. 339, 340. 

The Ku Klux Klan was a secret organization, which arose 


in Tennessee and spread over the South, to prevent the 


negroes from yoting. The members of the Ku Klux Klan 
would mask themselves and dress like ghosts, ride through 


the night, knock at the doors of the blacks, and threaten to 


whip them if they did not give up voting. The whites organ- 
ized this society to protect themselves against the rule of the 


negroes who were sitting in the legislature chairs making the 


laws when they could not read or write. 
The proceedings of the Ku Klux Klan went on until 
President Grant introduced the Force Bill which was prompt- 


ly passed. It provided for the punishment, by fine or impris- 


onment, of any one who would attempt to interfere with the 
right of any citizen to vote. 


414, Corruption in Public Officials. 


1. A “ring” of politicians, under the leadership of “Boss 
Tweed,” managed to get possession of the government of New 


THIRD QUARTER 123 


York City and, 1865-1871, robbed the tax payers of many 
millions. Tweed and his gang were finally overthrown in 
1871, through the efforts of Samuel J. Tilden and other prom- 
inent citizens. The Tweed ring had robbed New York of 
$100,000,000. 

The Erie Ring got possession of the Erie railroad and the 
Whiskey Ring defrauded the government out of millions in 
taxes. Belknap, Secretary of War, was found guilty of taking 
bribes from Indian agents and escaped impeachment by resigning 
his office. 

It was also charged that men who owned land in San 
Domingo were the ones who were backing the scheme to 
annex that island. While no one charged Grant with wrong 
doing, these scandals caused many to become dissatisfied 
with his administration. 


415. Liberal Republicans 1872. - 


When the Presidential election of 1872 came, there was 
much dissatisfaction felt with the existing order of things. 
Grant had made many unwise appointments to office and 
scandals had broken out. The policy of reconstruction advo- 
cated by the Republican party had proven a failure, while the 
Carpet-bag regime and the Ku Klux Klan had aroused many to 
the needs of a radical change in policy. 

A meeting was called in Cincinnati of those opposed to 
the government. Here was organized the “Liberal Republi- — 
can Party.” 

Their platform demanded that the spoils system be abol- 
ished and the immediate and absolute removal of all disa- 
bilities imposed on account of the Rebellion. Since the con- 
vention was divided upon the question of tariff reform, they 
left this to the discretion of Congress. Horace Greeley ° was _ 
-nominated as a candidate for President. In July, the Demo- _ 
cratic convention met, and adopted the platform of the Liberal 
Republicans and accepted the nomination of Greeley. 

The Republicans renominated Grant for a second term. 
He was elected, carrying all but six states. 


416. The Centennial Exposition. 


_ In 1876, in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, was held an ex- 
hibition known as the Centennial to commemorate the one hun- 
dredth anniversary of our independence. The grounds covered 
over eighty acres and exhibits were shown from all hations. 
In useful inventions the United States took the lead as it did at 
the World’s Fair of 1853, held at the Crystal Palace in New 
York City. The three most remarkable new inventions shown 


124 THIRD QUARTER 


at the Centennial in Philadelphia were the electric light, the tele- 
phone, invented by Professor A. G. Bell of Boston, and the first 
practical typewriter. Today, these have become. so common, 
they are really considered household necessities. Perhaps the 
most wonderful result of the exhibition was the place it gave the 
United States among the other nations as the home of useful in- 
ventions. It was just the beginning of the electrical age, and 
what man had heretofore done in a slow plodding way with his 


hands, now began to be done by electrically operated machines . 


which required only a man to guide and oversee. 


—— 417. The Presidential Election 1876. 


The Democrats nominated Samuel J. Tilden, of New 
York, for President. The Republicans nominated Rutherford 
B. Hayes, of Ohio, for President. This was a disputed elec- 
tion; both the Democrats and Republicans claimed to have 
elected their candidates and each party charged the other with 
fraud. The dispute grew so hot that it was left for Congress 
to settle. Congress, therefore, appointed an Electoral com- 
mission. : 


418 The Electoral Commission. 


The Electoral Commission consisted of five senators, three 
Republicans and two Democrats, five members of the Supreme 
Court, three of whom were former Republicans ; and five repre- 
sentatives, of whom three were Democrats and two were Repub- 
licans. Thus the Commission consisted of eight Republicans and 
seven Democrats. It decided in favor of the Republican candi- 
date and Tilden accepted the result without demur, although the 
Democrats were bitterly disappointed. 

The need for the Commission arose when there was a dispute 
over the electoral votes of Louisiana, South Carolina, Florida, 
and over one vote in Oregon. Thus, there were twenty electoral 
votes disputed. Hayes had 165, and Tilden 184. It certainly 


looked’ as though the Democrats had some reason to question — 
the fairness of the Commission’s decision. It required but 185 


electoral votes to elect, and Tilden in the beginning had 184 un- 


disputed votes. Two sets of electoral votes were returned from > 


Florida, South Carolina and Louisiana, which were still under 


“Carpet-bag’”’ government. As the Senate was Republican and 


the House Democratic, no agreement could be reached as to 


which of the disputed votes should be accepted, hence the Elec- . 


toral Commission was appointed. The decision was announced 


but two days before the inauguration, which took place March - 


Og 1524. 


yoy 


THIRD QUARTER 125 


POLITICS. 


419, Federal Troops Withdrawn from the South. 


Soon after Hayes took his seat as President of the United 
States, he stated that he believed the time had come, when the 
people of the reconstructed states should manage their own 
affairs, and that the Federal troops, which had sustained 
the Republican state government in South Carolina and Louis- 
-iana should be withdrawn. This was done and the Southern 
people were now free to establish local self government and 
to work out their new life as best they could. Democratic 
efficials soon took control of local affairs. 

Perhaps no single act since the Civil War did more to placate 
the South than this one. The confidence Hayes reposed in the 
South when he said-he was withdrawing the troops because he 
felt sure there would be no further trouble was not misplaced. 
He also appointed David M. Key, a former Confederate soldier, 
to a place in his Cabinet. This also caused the South to have a 
more friendly feeling to the North and the National Governmeni. 
Throughout his term, Hayes was broad-minded and just and did 
much to heal over the wounds of war by his treatment of the 


- Southern states. 


420. The Silver Question of 1873 and 1878. 


Congress passed a bill early in 1862, authorizing the issue 
of bills and because they had green tinted backs they were 
called “green backs.” To make them a success they were made 
legal tender for all debts except duties on imports, and in- 
terest on the public debt. Whenever the Union army was 
successful these greenbacks rose in value; when the Union 
army met defeats they depreciated in value. This was be- 
cause the people had more faith in the government at certain 
times than others. At one time in 1864, it took almost three 
dollars in green backs to purchase what one dollar in gold 
would buy. But after the war in 1879 the government re- 
sumed specie payment, and offered to give gold to any one in 
exchange for “green backs.” 

After the Civil War was over the government began to 
_ pay off its debts, and the people began to have more confidence 
in the power of the government to do as it agreed. In 1864, 
gold was worth three times as much as silver, but in 1879, 
when the financial condition of the government improved, 
gold reached par, and specie payments were resumed, and it 
has been the policy of our government to continue the same 
ever since, so that the gold, silver, and paper money are “on 
a parity.” 


126 THIRD QUARTER 


The silver question of 1873 had to do with the actual coinage 
of the money. In 1792 the Government had begun the coinage 
of gold and silver money in the ratio of 15 to 1, acting on the 
notion that one ounce of gold was worth fifteen of silver. Later, 
the ratio became 16 to 1. But later silver became scarce and 
therefore higher, and silversmiths found there was more than 
a dollar’s worth of silver in a silver dollar, hence would melt it 
down for the metal it contained. In 1873, ‘Congress ordered the 
making of silver dollars suspended, and ‘therefore demonetized 
silver. 

About this time silver began to be cheaper for rich deposits 
of the ore had been found in Nevada and the mines of the West. 
Now it required twenty-two ounces of silver to buy one ounce 
of gold, and the mining interests began to demand that Congress 
remonitize silver, that is begin using it to make silver dollars, in 
the old ratio of 16 to 1. 

The question assumed big proportions as a politcal issue 
when the farmers began demanding the free coinage of silver at 
the old ratio. They even went so far as to organize a political 
party known as the Greenback Party. Later they established the 
Populist Party, which declared for Free Silver in 1892. 

The silver question of 1878 had to do with the resumption 
of specie payments. They were resumed January 1, 1879. John 
Sherman was Secretary of the Treasury, and had collected a 
great deal of silver and gold to redeem any paper money pre- 
sented. But few asked for it, when they were sure they could 
get it if they wanted to do so. Since that time, there has been 
no difference between the amount that a gold, silver or paper 
dollar would buy. In fact, most people when offered silver at a 
bank will state their preference for the paper money since it is 
so much easier handled and lighter to carry. 


421. Resumption of Specie Payment, 1879. 

Specie payment was resumed January 1, 1879, when John 
Sherman was Secretary of the Treasury. 

But few asked for the metal coins instead of the paper, when 
they found the Government was prepared to make the exchange. 
This has been in force ever since 1879, but most people prefer 
the paper money since it is lighter and less bulky to handle. 

422. The Eads’ Jetties. 

For a most interesting account of this topic see Scribner’s 
Magazine, Vol. XIX, for an article entitled ‘The Mississippi 
Jetties.”’ 

It was during Hayes’ administration that the condition of 
the mouths of the Mississippi River began to be a matter of 
serious consideration. The Mississippi River carries enormous 


THIRD QUARTER 127 


quantities of sand, mud, and debris from its northern sources, 
_and deposits these at the point where it empties into the ocean 
below New Orleans. This mass finally reached the point where 
it was choking the harbor and ships could neither get in or out 
unless towed, or floated at high tide. Sometimes as many as fifty 
vessels were waiting to cross the obstruction. 

Now, there are really five mouths to the river as it meets 
the Gulf. One of the is known as the South Pass, another one as 
in Southwest Pass. In 1875, Captain Eads, the man who built 
the Eads Bridge at St. Louis across the Mississippi undertook 
to see what he could do to clear out one of these passes or mouths. 
By studying the current, he noted that if the banks were high 
and the current strong, the sand was carried out into the Gulf 
and the passage was kept clear. This was by no means a new 
idea to river men, but Eads decided he was going to see if he 
could utilize it in clearing out the channel. Therefore he went 
to work to build new banks on either side, so he could narrow 
the channel, and thereby increase the force of the flow. In four 
years he proved his idea to be correct, and now the Mississippi 
sweeps out her own channel, and ocean going steamers pass in 
and out at will. When one considers the enormous amount of 
import and export trade carried on by New Orleans, one can 
form an idea how valuable Eads’ idea was. Later, about 1908, 
the Southwest Pass was deepened also. 


423. The Assassination of President Garfield, 1881. 


Garfield had been President but four months when he 
was shot in a railroad depot in Washington, D. C., by a dis- 
appointed office-seeker, named Guiteau (Gé toe’). After suf- 
fering eighty days from the wound, he died September 19, 
1881. He is buried in Cleveland, Ohio. Chester A. Arthur, 
the Vice President, now became President and -served the 
remainder of the term. 

Guiteau was convicted of murder and hanged. 


424, Civil Service 1868-1896, 


From the time that Jackson had been President, it had 
been the custom of the Presidents to put men into office who 
were of the same political party as the Presidents were, or 
simply as a reward to them for working for them or spending 
money to get them elected. 

Later the Presidents were tormented with office-seekers, 
and sometimes more demanded offices than there were places 
to be filled. This was indeed a great burden to the Presi- 
dents. 


_ way. 


128 _ THIRD QUARTER 


Grant, knowing how Lincoln was besieged with office- 
seekers, made an unsuccessful effort to break up this “spoils 
system.” President Hayes also tried it but nothing practical 
was done, for many men in and out of Congress naturally 
fought against it with all their might. 

From 1789-1827 the Presidents had removed but seventy- 
four: Washington, nine, John Adams, ten, Jefferson, thirty- 
nine, Madison, five, Monroe, nine, J. Q. Adams, two. This 
was on an average less than two a year. It can be easily 
understood then how radical Jackson’s methods were when 
he turned out over 2,000 in a few months. The “Spoils 
System” held sway till 1883 and did much to demoralize the 
political life of that time. The system was denounced by 
such men as Webster, Clay, Benton, and Calhoun. | 

When Garfield became President in 1881, he faced trouble 
from the beginning. It had long been the custom for the 
President to consult the Senators of a state before he made 
appointments to offices in the state. Roscoe Conkling, Sena- 
tor from New York attempted to dictate to Garfield in the 
matter and an open break resulted. This petty squabbling 
over offices was given a tragic turn on July 2, 1881 when Gar-- 
field was shot by a disappointed office- seeker. This served as 
nothing else could have done to show people the folly and 
danger of the “Spoils System.” The new President, Arthur, 
strongly recommended a change and steps were taken to pro- ~ 
vide a Civil Service Commission. The plan has grown till 
now most of the Civil Service appointments are made in this 


The “Spoils System” had been introduced into politics 
in 1829, and though some efforts had been made to correct the 
evil, little progress was made. 

In 1841, President Harrison died from worry over making 
appointments, while the tragic death of Garfield in 1881 was 


due to the same cause. In January, 1883, the Pendleton Civil — 


Service Act was passed by the united efforts of both parties. - 
Under the following President, the “Merit System” grew. 

In 1871 George William Curtis had just agitated such a 
law, and Grant appointed him chairman of a commission to 
administer the new law. In 1875, Congress refused further 
funds, and the movement died out. The practice of holding — 
competitive examinations had been tried in some depart- 
ments during Hayes’ administration. When the law was 
passed in 1883, about 14,000 Federal employees were affected, 
by 1892 the number had reached 43,000, and during Cleve- 
land’s administration it rose to 87,000. 


THIRD QUARTER 129 


The Civil Service Reform had been begun during Presi- 
dent Arthur’s administration. President Cleveland gave spe- 
cial attention to it, and a great many offices had been filled by 
those taking examinations for the positions, instead of being 
appointed to the office by the President. In this way when 
any one had passed the Civil Service examination, he need 
not fear that he would lose his position if a President of oppo- 
site political party was elected. Anyone obtaining a position 
by passing a Civil Service examination holds the same, as 
long as he renders good service, and does not use his office 
for political purposes. 

From the beginning of his career, Cleveland took a great 
interest in the workings of the Civil Service. Even when he 
came to the White House, the system was not yet perfected 
and it was only after many firm stands that the President 
was able to rid himself of the incubus that had been such a 
burden to former Presidents. Cleveland Fatey or never ap- 
pointed personal friends to office. 


425. A Democratic President 1885. 


Grover Cleveland was the first President to be elected by 
the Democrats since the beginning of the Civil War. The 
Vice President was Thomas Hendricks, of Indiana. They 
were elected in the fall of 1884. The Republicans had nomi- 
nated James G. Baine, of Maine, and John A. Logan, of IIli- 
nois, for President and Vice President, but in the election 
they were defeated. 

Cleveland and Hendricks served from 1885-1889. 


426. The Presidential Succession Law, 1886. 


In 1886, a very important law was passed known as the 
Presidential Succession Law. It provided for a President in 
case of the death or disability of both the President and Vice- 
President. It provided that the Secretary of State, and the other 
cabinet members in order should succeed to the office of President. 
The cabinet consisted of nine officers: 

Secretary of State. 

Secretary of the Treasury. 
Secretary of War. 

Attorney General. 

Post Master General. 

Secretary of the Navy. 

Secretary of the Interior. 

Secretary of Agficulture. 

Secretary of Commerce and Labor. ; 


SER ee a Se Se tS 


130 THIRD QUARTER 


Before the Presidential Succession Law, 1f the President was 
killed the Vice President took his place. Later, this Sucééssion 
Law placed more protection around the life of the President. 


ILLINOIS HISTORY—THE LIN COLN-DOUGLAS 
DEBATES. 


(a) The Absorbing Problem Prior to 1960. 


In the campaign of 1856 there was but one question—the 
issue as to the permanent restriction of slavery to the states in 
which it already existed. It was not only a national issue—it 
i Families became 
divided over it, churches were separated one from another, and 
and the whole force of state and national politics was centered 
around this one question. Lincoln urged such restriction, while 
Douglas admitted he had no interest in the moral side of the 
question and argued each state as it came into the union should 
decide the question itself. Various attempts had been made to 
decide the question since the first introduction of slavery into 
the United States and each new measure passed was hailed as 
the one which should settle the question for all! fumes igre te 
- was a question that refused to remain settled for more than a few 
years at a time. The first discussion of free and slave territory 
arose about the time of the Ordinance of 1787. This ordinance 
guaranteed freedom of worship, trial by jury, the encouragement 
of schools, and no slavery. The far reaching effects of this law 
could not be forseen at that time. Indeed, Congress on the day 
that the law was passed was made up of eight states—seven of 
which were slave. But at that date, slavery had not become 
a political issue, and one old Southerner who voted for the 
measure said he did it to keep tobacco, indigo, and cotton being 
raised north of the Ohio river. 

Up till 1820, the balance was maintained between free and 
slave states—in that year there were eleven of each. Such was 
the status when Missouri asked to be allowed to form itself 
into a state. This territory settled by slave owners from the 
South, who did not doubt for a moment that the territory would 
be admitted as a slave state. But there were men in Congress 
now who felt the time had come to curb the growing power of 
slavery. The result was a dead lock until the famous Com- 
promise of 1820, or sometimes called the Missouri Compromise. 
This permitted Missouri to enter as a slave state but forever 
prohibited slavery above the parallel 36° 30’. 

Moderate thinking men on both sides were satisfied and 
again felt the slavery question had been settled. It was for 
a few years. | 


THIRD QUARTER 131 


In 1850, after the Mexican War had added new territory 
to the United States the question again arose as to whether all 
land so gained should be free or slave. David Wilmot, a 
member of the House of Representatives, proposed that such 
territory should be free, but this measure known as the Wilmot 
Proviso was rejected. 

The admission of California again reopened the discussion. 
The result was the compromise. arranged by Henry Clay, and 
known as the Compromise of 1850. 

By this time serious thinking people realized that the slavery 
question was not settled and not likely to be until some far- 
reaching readjustment should take place. 


(b) Attempted Solution by the Kansas, Nebraska Act. 

In 1854, the Democrats under.Stephen A. Douglas passed 
a bill so much in favor of the South that the North was startled 
into activity. This was the famous Kansas-Nebraska Bill, which 
repealed the Missouri Compromise of 1820. The new bill divided 
the territory known as Nebraska into two parts—the northern 
one known as Nebraska and the Southern one as Kansas. It 
gave the settlers of these two territories the right to say whether 
they would come into the Union as free or slave states. 

The North aroused over this bill led to the formation of a 
new party, called the Republican, which nominated John C. 
Fremont in 1856 for President. He was defeated by Buchanan. 


(c) Attempt Solution by Dred Scott Decision. 

In 1857, the slave interests gained a great victory by a de- 
cision of the Supreme court handed down in March of that year. 
Dred Scott was a negro slave, whose master, a surgeon, had 
taken him first to Illinois in 1838, then to Minnesota. By the 
Compromise of 1820, Minnesota was a free state. Here Scott 
had married a woman by the name of Harriet, with the consent 
of his master. Later, the surgeon took Scott and his family 
back to Missouri. There he sold them to a new master, but 
Scott held he was free since he had lived in a free state so 
long. At last the case after being tried several times was taken 
to the Supreme court, where Chief Justice Taney announced 
three facts of great importance. 

1. The Declaration of Independence did not include 
negroes, therefore no negro whose parents had been brought to 
the United States as slaves could be a citizen of the United States. 

2. Congress was powerless to prohibit slavery in the 
territories. 

3. The Missouri Compromise of 1820 was unconstitutional, 
hence void. 


132 | THIRD QUARTER 


Instead of settling slavery, the Dred Scott Decision renewed 
the struggle with greater bitterness. It declared that the principle 
upon which the Republican Party had been founded—no ex- 
tension of slavery—was unconstitutional. 


(d) Formation of the Anti-Nebraska Party. - 


The formation of the Anti-Nebraska Party was ‘the direct 
outcome of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill. The anti-slavery party 
decided something must be done, and at once. In each party it 
made fatal charges. The Whig party was only a name. The 
American Party, the Freel Soilers, with many ex-Democrats and 
disgruntled Whigs united to form a new party called first the 
Anti-Nebraska, and later the Republican Party. It was a queer 
crowd gotten together and held together but by one interest— 
opposition to the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. This was 
the thing they held in common, and out of this hodge-podge of 
parties, Lincoln smoldered the present Republican Party. 


(e) Senator Douglas Between Two Fires. 


Senator Douglas held a peculiar position during this time. 
He had been the father of the Kansas-Nebraska Act, his belief 
being that the individual state should decide the question for 
itself. But when the struggle for possession of the state of 
Kansas had come, and the free element had moved in making 
their headquarters at Lawrence and Topeka, and the Slave state ~ 
men made theirs at Lecompton and Leavenworth, events took a 
turn that Douglas had not anticipated. Each side drew up a 
constitution and though outnumbered clearly, the slave men suc- 
ceeded in getting Buchanan.to recognize theirs, known as the 
Lecompton Constitution. They sought to have the state now 
brought in as a slave state even over the majority of the voter’s 
wishes. Senator Douglas lent his energies to defeating this 
measure. He said the people should decide the question and if 
the majority was opposed to slavery it shouldn’t be permitted. 
But in taking this stand, he ran counter to President Buchanan’s 
_ wishes and the wishes of the most influential men of his party. 
This led to a split in the party which now became known as the 
Douglas Democrats and the Buchanan Democrats, 

It was clearly the case of a man taking a stand for what he 
believed was right and staying with it, for by the Kansas- 
Nebraska Act, he gained the enmity of the free-state men and by 


opposing the Lecompton Constitution he incurred the ill will — 


of the President and the leaders of his own political party. He — 
found himself between two fires, and in the end was burnt by 
both. 


THIRD QUARTER 133 


(f) Lincoln’s Ambitions to Succeed Douglas as United 
States Senator. 

The political rivalry of Lincoln and Douglas stand as one 
of the three great political rivalries in the history of the United 
States. The campaign took place in the summer and fall of 
1858. Douglas was by far the better known of the two; 
Lincoln at that time being known chiefly in his own state: The 
Democratic party was at this time divided into the Douglas 
Democrats and the Buchanan Democrats. Douglas had incurred 
the displeasure of a large number of his party by the stand he 
_ had taken on the Lecompton Constitution. He had opposed 
this measure with real courage, and on his record in this fight, 
he was making his campaign for Congress as United States 
Senator. The office holders of his party were opposed to him, 
but the independent members of his party were back of him 
solidly. : 

Lincoln had been chosen by a state convention of the Re- 
publican party as their candidate. His. platform was an un- 
qualified avowal of his opposition to the extension of slavery. 

(g) The Challenge to a Public Discussion. 

July 24, 1858, Lincoln challenged Douglas to a series of 
joint debates on the issues between the two parties. After some 
hesitation on Douglas’ part, the challenge was accepted and the 
seven meeting places chosen. These were:— Ottawa, Freeport, 
Jonesboro, Charleston, Galesburg, Quincy, and Alton. 


(h) The Seven Joint Debates. | 

The debates opened at Ottawa August 21, 1858, and closed 
at Alton October 21, 1858, occupying a fifty-six day period. 
The second speech was at Freeport, Stephenson Co., August 27; 
the third at Jonesboro, Union Co., Sept. 15; the Fourth at 
Charleston, Coles Co., Sept. 18; the fifth at Galesburg, Knox Co., 
Oct. 7; the sixth at Quincy, Adams Co., Act. 13; and the seventh 
at Alton, Madison Co., Oct. 15. 

_ The debates were attended by thousands and thousands of 
people. Indeed, the eyes of the whole nation were upon the two 
contestants. The second debate held at Freeport was perhaps the 
most important of the whole seven for it was during this one 
that Lincoln asked Douglas—‘‘Can the people of a United States 
territory, in any lawful way, against the wish of any citizen of the 
United States exclude slavery from its limits prior to the forma- 
tion of a state constitution ?” 

Douglas’ reply was his political death warrant, and time 
proved the truth of Lincoln’s prophecy that Douglas could not 
answer that question in such a way as to be elected both senator 
and President. | 


134 THIRD QUARTER 


Douglas dared not break with the party leaders in Illinois 
but his answer which was really in conflict with the Dred Scott 
decision caused the feeling to grow in the South that he had 
been guilty of duplicity in the matter, since in the beginning he 
had defended the decision of the Supreme Court in the case. 


(i) Immediate and Later Results of the Debates. 


Douglas’ answer to Lincoln’s questions at the Freeport 
debate gained him the Senatorship but lost him the “Presidency 
in 1860. This Lincoln forsaw when he asked the questions. His 
friends advised him not to ask them, telling Lincoln it gave 
Douglas too good an opening. But Lincoln replied that he was — 
not concerned about the senatorship especially. “I am killing 
larger game. The great battle of 1860 is worth a thousand of 
this senatorial race.” Lincoln was looking into the future pre- 
paring for the struggle he saw to be inevitable between the free 
and slave states. When the ballot was taken in the fall of 1858, 
Lincoln received forty-six votes, and Douglas fifty-four, and was 
therefore elected senator. Two years later. Lincoln was elected 
President, receiving a little more than one-third of the total vote. 


FOURTH QUARTER 135 


FOURTH QUARTER 


THE UNITED STATES A WORLD POWER—WAR AND 
EXPANSION, 9.2, 7-4 


427. Benjamin Harrison President, 1889. 


Harrison was our twenty-third President, and served 1889- 
1893. He was the grandson of President W. H. Harrison. He 
served in the Union Army, and in 1880 was elected United States 
Senator. In 1888, he was elected President on the Republican 
Ticket, with Levi P. Morton of New York as Vice-President. 
Grover Cleveland of New York and Allen G. Thurman of Ohio 
were the Democratic candidates. The tariff issue was the main 
question of this campaign. 


428. The McKinley Protective Tariff Bill. 


The McKinley Tariff Bill was passed in 1890. This law 
raised the protective duties. Its object was to protect Ameri- 
can products and American manufacturers against competi- 
tion. It allowed the President to establish with other nations 
“reciprocity agreements,” i. e., articles to be admitted free 
from countries admitting United States goods free, and if 
other countries put duties on our products we were to charge 
duties on their products. The McKinley Tariff was repealed 
in 1894, but later the “reciprocity agreements” were re-en- 
acted. 


{\ A 
+ MLA } 


429, Six New States Admitted. 


In November, 1889, Montana, North Dakota, South Dakota, 
and Washington were admitted to the Union. In 1890, Wyoming 
and Idaho came in, making a total at that time of forty-four. 


430. The Sherman Silver Purchase Act, 1890. 


Our silver mines were producing so much silver that the 
price was growing lower and lower, until at last the silver 
dollar was worth about fifty cents. Many persons thought if 
the government would coin more of it into money the price 
would raise. Senator John Sherman offered a bill in Congress 
directing the Secretary of the Treasury to buy 4,500,000 
ounces of silver each month at full value, if that amount were 
offered for sale. The bill became a law in 1890. After the 


136 FOURTH QUARTER 


people had tried this “Silver Purchase” they came to the con- 
clusion that it was doing harm to the country, and, in 1893, 
it was repealed. Senator Sherman himself wanted the law 
repealed. | 

During the year 1893, the country was in the midst of a 
great panic. Banks failed, factories were closed, a great many © 
people were thrown out of work, and prices of all ‘products 
were very low. Many people blamed the government and ~ 
severely criticised Cleveland’s administration. 

The causes of the panic were poor crops, too much specu- 
lation, and extravagance. It will be remembered that the 
Sherman Silver Purchase Act compelled the government to 
buy 4,500,000 ounces of silver each month; this was to be 
paid for in treasury notes, and these treasury notes were to be 
redeemed in gold and silver. The metal in the silver dollar 
was worth only about sixty-seven cents. Foreign nations who ~ 
held these treasury notes thought our government meant to 
pay them with these “sixty-seven cent” dollars. They be- 
came so alarmed that they were ready to sell their holdings for 
whatever they could get for them. Many of our citizens pur- 
chased, and began to call upon the treasury for gold. So much 
of it went out of the treasury that only $97,000,000 were left, 
and it had been agreed that -$100,000,000 should always be 
kept on hand in order to redeem all treasury notes whenever 
they would be presented. It was a period of “tight money,” 
and led to the repeal of the Sherman Silver Purchase Act in 
order to stop the drain on the gold supply. 


431, President Cleveland’s Second Term. 


In 1892, Grover Cleveland was elected by the Democrats for 
a second term, with Adlai E. Stevenson of Illinois for Vice- 
President. Benjamin Harrison was the Republican nominee for 
President. , 

The tariff question was the main issue in the campaign. It 
was at this time that the People’s Party or the Populists Party 
had its beginning. Out of a total of 444 electoral votes, their 
candidate, James B. Weaver of Iowa received 22, but none east 
of Kansas. 


432. The World’s Columbian Exposition, 1892. — 


In October, 1892, magnificent buildings were dedicated for 
the World’s Columbian Exposition at Chicago. The next spring, 
May first, the Fair was formally opened to the public by President 
Cleveland. The Fair was held to commemorate the 400th anni- 
versary of the discovery of America by Columbus. It was held 
in Jackson Park, fronting upon Lake Michigan. Buildings were 


> 


FOURTH QUARTER 137 


erected by the various nations of the earth while every state was 
represented by a state in which were displayed products typical 
of that state. Congress appropriated $10,000,000 for use in 
various ways in making the fair a success. After the fair was 
over, the buildings were all torn down except one, which was 
made into a museum and is known now as the Field Museum of 
Natural History. 


433. Panics and Strikes. 


It was during the second administration of Cleveland that 
the panic of 1893 came. There first came a lull in business; 
tariff duties supplied little revenues, and a marked depression 
came in all lines of industry. Money was scarce and could not 
be borrowed. Foreigners lost confidence and sold their holdings 


-in this country much below par. Gold was being withdrawn from 


the country to pay our foreign debts. Banks began to fail, fac- 
tories closed down, hundreds were thrown out of employment, 
and much misery and want prevailed. This was especially true 
in the West, where much of the business had been carried on on 
borrowed capital. The President realizing that drastic action 
must be taken, called a special session of Congress to consider 
the money question and general financial situation. 

The first act of the Congress was the repealing of the 
Sherman Act in November, 1893. This did not settle the money 
question, however, and in the campaign of 1896 it became the 
main issue. 

In 1894, there came a most alarming labor situation. Trouble 
between employer and employee had been brewing for years. 
With the great increase in wealth and the combining of great 
money interests into trust, there had come a corresponding union 
of the labor element. That so many of our laborers were now 
foreigners, had something to do with their growing discontent. 
In 1877, there had been a costly clash of interests among the 
owners and employees of the Pennsylvania Railroad. This re- 
sulted in the destruction of a great deal of property, among it 
being the great station at Pittsburgh. A few years later, at the 
Carnegie Ironworks at Homestead, Pennsylvania, there was a 
heavy loss of life when employees struck, for what they deemed 
their rights. In 1886, in the Haymarket riot in Chicago several 
policemen were killed by bombs hurled by strikers. In the mining 
sections of the West, there was almost constant strife. But none 
of these had been as serious as that which came about in Chicago 
in 1894. 

The cause of this great strike was the reduction of wages 
by the Pullman Palace Car Company. The strike began at 
Pullman, Illinois, near Chicago, Illinois, in the car works 


138 FOURTH QUARTER 


and later spread to the railroad employees. These employees 
refused to move the trains that carried Pullman cars be- 
tween Chicago, San Francisco and other points until their 
wages should be raised. The United States mail was stopped, 
and much railroad property was destroyed. It was not until 
President Cleveland sent troops to preserve order and protect 
the mail that the strike ended. 


434, The Behring Sea Dispute Settled. 


Another source of worry during the Cleveland administra- _ 
tion was that of the Behring Sea Dispute. We declared that » 
when we purchased Alaska that we gained the right to close ~ 
Behring Sea to seal hunters of other nations. This right the 


foreign seal fisherman denied to the United States. Finally a . © 


commission composed of seven men from the United States, 
France, Italy, England, Norway and Sweden were chosen to 
decide the matter. They decided we could not close the sea, 
but said the seals must be protected and not allowed to be killed 
except at certain times and under certain conditions. As it was 
our purpose in closing the sea to protect the seals from indis- 
criminate slaughter, we really won our contention. 


435. The Monroe Doctrine Applied. 


A long’ and bitter dispute had been going on between ~ 
Great Britain and Venezuela, in regard to the boundary line 
, between Venezuela and British Guiana. Great Britain refused 
/ to submit the question to arbitration and was about to begin 
war with Venezuela, when the United States interfered by 
_ right of the Monroe Doctrine and declared that Great Britain 
' had no right to enlarge her possessions by force. At last an 
agreement was made between Great Britain and Venezuela, 
in 1899, by which the trouble was peaceably settled, and Great 
Britain came into possession of most of the territory which 
she claimed belonged to her. | 


SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR.- 


436. Presidential Campaign and Election 1896. 


The Treasury had ceased to buy silver and the demand 
for free coinage of silver was renewed. The Republicans in 
their national platform in 1896, declared against it, whereupon 
thirty-four delegates from the silver states (Idaho, Montana, 
South Dakota, Colorado, Utah, and. Nevada) left the conven- — 
tion. ge Democratic party declared for free coinage,* but 
many Democrats (“gold Democrats”) thereupon formed a 
new party, called the National Democratic, and nominated 


_ a 
asta Sen cca, 


FOURTH QUARTER 139 


candidates on a gold-standard platform. Both the great 
parties were thus split on the issue of free coinage of silver. 

* They demanded “the free and unlimited coinage of both 
silver and gold at the present legal ratio of 16 to 1”; that is, 
that out of one pound of gold should be coined as many dollars 
as out of sixteen pounds of silver—McMasters Brief History, 
p. 417. 

The Republicans nominated William McKinley for Presi- 
dent. The Democrats nominated William J. Bryan. The 
Gold Democrats nominated John M. Palmer. The Populists 
nominated the same candidate as the Democrats. 

At the election in the fall of 1896, McKinley received the 
majority of the electoral votes. 


437. Gold Standard and National Prosperity. 


With the election of McKinley, the United States seemed to 
enter upon an era of peace and prosperity. The troublesome 
times of Cleveland’s second administration were left behind, and 
a rapid development began in our commercial life. One of the 
most remarkable gains was made in our exports to foreign 
countries. In 1908, these exports reached $1,854,000,000 in value 
and have increased much since that time. Great Britain depends 
upon us for the greater part of her food, while oil, leather, 
cotton and tobacco are also exported in great quantities. We also 
have come to control the iron, steel, and copper trade. In 1908, 
our manufactured goods exported, reached a total value of . 
'$750,000,000. 

But not only commercially was the United States expanding. 
Some of the most notable places of our time were dedicated 
during this period. Among these were: Grant’s Tomb on 
Riverside Drive, New York, Museum of Natural History, Public 
Library, Library of Columbia University, Museum of Art, the 
Customhouse, College of the City of New York, and the Soldiers’ 
and Sailors’ Arch, all in New York City. 

In Washington, D. C., the world famous Congressional 
Library was opened. It has space for 6,000,000 volumes, and 
is considered equalled by no building of its kind in the world. 


438. Sympathy for an Oppressed People. 


For years there had been trouble and discontent in Cuba. 
During the slave period in the South, the slave states had desired 
to get hold of the Island of Cuba, which is in size about the size 
of Pennsylvania and close to the coast of Key West, Florida. 
In 1845, we offered Spain $100,000,000 for the island, a sum she 
indignantly refused. Later, some move was made to seize the 
island for the South. This led to a meeting of our ministers of 


140 FOURTH QUARTER 


Great Britain, Spain, and France at Ostend, Belgium in 1854 to 
discuss the Cuban question. They declared that as long as Cuba 
was under Spanish rule, we would be caused trouble, and that we 
ought to gain control of it by seizure if no other way presented 
itself. In 1868, a rebellion broke out in Cuba which dragged 
along for ten years. In 1895, a new uprising occurred, and the © 
Revolutionists—the party demanding separation from Spain— 
declared for freedom or death. This revolt led to the Spanish 
colony in the Phillipines declaring their independence. 

When McKinley became President the war was causing 
great loss to citizens of the United States who had financial 
interests in Cuba. Between the Revolutionists on the one hand, 
and the Spanish commanders on the other, the inhabitants of the 
island were in a pitable plight. If they refused to join the former, 
they were hanged; if the latter, they were herded into vile filthy 
towns to die of staravation or yellow fever. 

In the outbreak of 1895, the revolutionists destroyed planta- 
tions, factories, and laid waste thousands of sugar plantations 
owned by American capital. Then the Spanish General, Weyler, 
began destroying not only property but lives as well. The cruelty 
of the Spanish commanders stirred the American people deeply, 
and the pulpit and press took up the cry of Liberty for the 
Cubans. The newspapers—that is the more radical ones—de- 
manded that we step in at once and demand Cuban independence. 

Many Americans joined societies formed to help the island 
.in its struggle and adventurous American citizens went to the 
island, and enlisted in the Cuban Army. 


439. ‘‘Remember the Maine.’’ 


Soon after his inauguration, McKinley protested to Spain 
about conditions in the island, and demanded that order be 
restored and protection be given American interest. While an ex- — 
change of letters was being made, in February 15, 1898, the battle- 
ship Maine, belonging to. the United States and at that time in. 
the harbor of Havana, was blown up. There were two officers 
and two hundred fifty- -eight of the crew were killed. Now, the 
United States was aroused from coast to coast, and people began 
wearing buttons in their lapels reading “Remember the Maine.” 

Those favoring war renewed their efforts. Spain denied she 
had anything to do with the disaster, and referred to it as a 
“regretable incident.” She insisted the explosion came’ from 
within the vessel, while others laid it to a submarine mine. The 
charge against Spain was never proven, but every indication seems 
to point that it was caused by some external force. 


FOURTH QUARTER 141 


440. War Declared; Dewey in Manilla Bay. 

The United States demanded of Spain that her cruelty 
must stop; little attention was paid to it until President Mc- 
Kinley declared that Spain should do something to relieve the 
starving peasants. Spain removed General Weyler, who had 
been appointed Spanish commander, and sent out General 
Blanco. Blanco made a great many “good promises” to the 
revolting Cubans, but they had been deceived so many times 
by Spanish promises, that they openly stated that nothing 
would satisfy them save absolute independence. Gomez was 
the leader of the revolting Cubans. 

When the President-called for 200,000 volunteers, a million 
men asked to enlist. Congress had already appropriated 
$50,000,000 for the President to use in outfitting the troops, then 
asked for a loan of $200,000,000 from the people to pay the men 
in the army and navy. This was more than seven times over- 
subscribed. 

Owing to the location of Cuba, the navy naturally would 
play a big part in the war, so the President ordered Captain 
William T. Sampson with a fleet of warships to proceed to Cuba, 
and block the ports of that island, especially that of Havana. 
Commodore W. S. Schley was placed in command of a “flying 
squadron,” fast, armed vessels which would be ready to serve 
wherever needed. April 25, 1918, Congress then formally 
declared war on Spain. 

Spain owned the Philippines. Manila was the capital. 
The United States undertook to strike Spain two blows at 
once. While she was busy with her trouble in Cuba, Com- 
mander George Dewey, who was stationed at Hong Kong, 
China, started at once for Manila, where he intended to de- 
stroy the Spanish fleet which guarded that port. He reached 
Manila on Sunday morning May 1, 1898, made an attack, and 
after a fierce battle destroyed the mpanish # fleet without losing 
a man or ship. 

Dewey had but six ships of war, and was forced to attack 
an enemy that had twice aS many vessels, and also held a forti- 
fied port. But Dewey knew he could count on his gunners, and 
that he was not disappointed in them is borne out by a statement 
made by a French officer who was an eye witness of the fight. 
In speaking of the American’s marksmanship he said the 
“American fire was something awful for its accuracy and 


rapidity.” | | 
441. American Troops in Cuba. 


About the time of the Battle of Manilla, Captain Sampson 
sailed for Santiago, in southern Cuba. Owing to the nature of 


142 FOURTH QUARTER 


the location of Santiago, Sampson did not dare enter the harbor. 
The entrance to the harbor was long, narrow and well protected 
by land batteries as well as submarine mines. About this time 
General Shafter landed an army near Santiago to aid Sampson 
in his attack. July 1-2, 1898, Shafter’s force which had been aug- 
mented by the arrival of Roosevelt’s Rough Riders, made an 
attack on El Caney and San Juan which overlooked the city of — 
Santiago. It resulted in a complete rout of the Spanlags who — 
rushed headlong into the city of Santiago. 


442. A Famous Naval Engagement. 


Meanwhile a Spanish fleet under Cervera (thir va ra) 
sailed from the Cape Verde Islands. Acting Read Admiral 
Sampson, with ships which had been blockading Havana, 
and Commodore Schley, with a “flying squadron,’ went 
in search of Cervera, who, after a long hunt, was found in the 
harbor of Santiago, on the south coast of Cuba, and at once 
blockaded. As the fleet of Cervera could not be attacked by 
water, it was decided to capture Santiago, and so force him 
to run out. General Shafter with an army was sent to Cuba, 
and landed a few miles from the city (June 22,23), and at 
once pushed forward. On July 1, the Spanish positions on two 
hills, El Caney (el ca na’) and San Juan (sahn hoo ahn’) 
were carried by storm. The capture of Santiago was now so 
certain that, on July 3, Cervera’s fleet dashed from the harbor 
and attempted to break through the blockading fleet. A run- 
ning sea fight followed, and in a few hours six of the Spanish 
vessels were shattered wrecks on the coast of Cuba. Not one 
of our ships was seriously damaged. Two weeks later General 
Toral (to rahl’) surrendered the city of Santiago, the eastern 
end of Cuba, and a large army.—McMaster’s Brief History, pp. 


422, 423. 
443. Porto Rico Occupied by United States Troops. 


With the fall of Santiago, the war in Cuba was ended. 
General Miles then proceeded to Porto Rico. Here his troops 
met with little resistance and this island would soon have been 
under his control as Cuba had been under General Shafter’s 
had not the news reached the island August 12th that steps had 
been taken by Spain to make peace. When the President 
ordered all Be ne to end, the Governor of Porto Rico sur- . 
rendered the island to General Miles. 

The treaty of peace was signed at Paris, December 10, 
1898. Spain gave up all claim to Cuba and ceded Porto Rico 
and Guam to the United States. The United States paid Spain 


FOURTH QUARTER 143 


$20,000,000, and she ceded the Philippines to us. The 
$20,000,000 were for public improvements which Spain had 
erected on the islands. 

The war cost in money about $130,000,000. Cost in life 
about 420, who were killed in battle, and about 3 000 who died 
of disease. 

On May 20, 1902, the United States troops were with- 
drawn from Cuba, and the Republic of Cuba was formally 
inaugurated. The United States flag was taken down from 
the government building at Havana, and the flag of Cuba 
took its place. An election was held for the purpose of elect- 
ing a President, Vice President, and Members of Congress. 


EXPANSION. 


444, Hawaii Annexed. 


Early in 1893, a revolution broke out in the Hawaiian 
Islands. American sailors on the ‘ “Boston” gave the leaders of 
the revolt aid, and the native queen was deposed, the govern- 
ment was made a Republic, and an American was made Presi- 
dent of the island. Hawaii asked to be annexed to the 
United States, but Cleveland declined, saying that the men 
from the “Boston” might have contributed to the success of 
the revolution, and, if that was the case, the Americans had 
not acted with fairness, therefore he was not in favor of an- 
nexation. 

Later, (1898) Hawaii was annexed by joint resolution. 
These islands are valuable to the United States as a coaling 
station. They were organized as a territory, and sent their 
first delegate to Congress in 1900. 

In the Hawaiian group there are twelve islands with a total 
area of about 7000 square miles. Of the total population in 1900 
of 153,000, 61,000 were Japanese, 25,000 were Chinese. There 
were about 28,000 white inhabitants to about 30,000 native 
Hawaiians. Only a small part of the population speak English. 


445. Problems of Governing the New Possessions. 


With the acquisition of new territory, came the question of 
its government. When Hawaii was annexed, many of the 
Senators held that the people of these islands were not fit for 
self-government. But Congress resolved to annex them and 
Hawaii became a part of the United States. They were then 
organized as a terrotiry, which was to be governed by a legis- 
lature, elected by the voters of the island, and by a Governor, 
who was to be appointed by the President and approved by the 
Senate of the United States. 


144 FOURTH QUARTER 


When the treaty of peace was signed in Paris by Spain 
and the United States, we acquired Porto Rico, the Philippines, 
and Guam, while Cuba was to be free. Now, we were face to face 
with the problem of setting up some sort of government in each 
of these places. 

But before we had had time to begin any serious plans, 
trouble broke out in the Philippines. Before we had. stormed 
Manila, a native leader named Aguinaldo, had led uprisings 
against the Spanish and when the American troops had attacked 
Manila, Aguinaldo and his followers had aided ‘them. In 
January, 1899, these native leaders heard that the United States 
had acquired the islands and intended to annex it as American 
territory. Naturally they were bitterly disappointed and early 
in February trouble broke out between the native troops and 
the forces of the United States. For nearly three years this 
struggle lasted—never coming to open warfare but each side 
engaged in a sort of guerrilla war, which took a heavy toll of 
both life and property. Finally, the uprising was crushed by 
the capture of the leaders. 

Now a definite policy of government was put into effect. 
Railroads were built, schools opened, and hundreds of teachers 
from the states sent out to teach in the native schools. Better 
methods of farming were introduced, many miles of roads built, 
and numerous new industries were introduced. 

In 1907, the United States granted the Philipino a ‘shareai in 
his government.. A large number of the natives (men) were 
given the privilege of voting for delegates to general assemblies, 
which decided questions of local interest. The Governor of the 
islands as well as the upper house of the legislature however 
were to be appointed by the President of the United States and 
approved by the United States Senate. 

A similar policy was put in force in Porto Rico. Native men 
who possessed certain qualifications were given a share in the 
government but the upper officials were to be chosen by the 
United States Government. RS 

Now politics entered into the question of the government of 
our new possessions. The Democrats demanded Home Rule for 
Porto Rico and independence for the Philippines. When in 1913 
they came into control, they began to lay plans to this end. In 
1916, Congress agreed that at some future time, independence 
should be granted the Philippines, but the date was left un- 
decided. At this same session, they also gave the natives the 
power to elect the Upper House of the Philippine Legislature. 
In the beginning they had been given the privilege of electing 
the lower house. In 1917, a similar change was made in Porto 
Rico. Manhood suffrage was also granted. 


FOURTH QUARTER 145 


446. The Boxer Rebellion. 


With the acquisition of the Philippines, the United States 
seemed to step into world politics. Hardly had a semblance of 
order been restored in the island till trouble broke out in China. 
In 1900 a faction known as “Boxers” rose and tried to drive out 
the foreigners from China. They resented the interference of 
the Occident into the affairs of the Orient. The German Am- 
bassador was killed as well as a large number of foreigners at 
Peking. At once, Russia, England, France, Germany, Japan, 
the United States and other powers began to send soldiers to 
protect lives and property in China. Order was soon restored 
and China paid a huge indemnity for the damages done. 

Many of the European countries wanted to sieze China and 
divide it up among the various nations, but the United States 
would not agree to this. She held out merely for the “open 
door” that was equal and fair trade in China for all nations. 
When the indemnity had been paid us we found it more than 
covered the losses to our people, so we returned it to China 
with the understanding that it be used to educate Chinese 
students in American schools. This was a particularly wise move 
in that it gave a chance to the Chinese students to come to the 
United States study our government and to become better ac- 
quainted with us. It also increased the respect of the Chinese 
government toward us, and gave it a kindly interest in us. 


447, The Hague Court of Arbitration. 


In 1900, the Senate ratified The Hague Peace Conference 
Treaty. According to this agreement, the nations of Europe, 
Japan, and the United States agreed to submit all questions that 
arise to a court of arbitration which was to be in constant session 
in the city of The Hague, the capital of Holland. It was hoped 
that by this means, war might be done away with between 
nations signing the treaty. The World War which came sixteen 
years later showed how foolish this hope was to be. 


448. McKinley Re-elected in 1900. 


When time came to select candidates for the election in 
1900, no one was thought of by the Republican but McKinley. 
He had made an excellent President and had brought to a suc- 
cessful close all the big undertakings of his term of office. Bryan 
was still the idol of the Democrats and was re-nominated by 
them as their candidates. There were no biterly fought ques- 
tions in this campaign as in the previous one. ‘Territorial ex- 
pansion was discussed as was the tariff and the money question. 
McKinley was elected by 292 votes to 155 for Bryan. Mc- 


146 FOURTH QUARTER 


Kinley began his second term under very favorable conditions. 
His Vice President was a vigorous type of young man, Theodore 
Roosevelt, whom we first heard of in our study of the Spanish 
War, where he led his Rough Riders in their successful attack on 
San Juan Hill. 


449, Death of President McKinley. Roosevelt President. 


A great World’s Fair called the Pan-American Exposition 
was held at Buffalo, New York, in 1901. President McKinley 
visited the Exposition, and a great reception was given in his 
honor in the Hall of Music. While in the act of shaking 
hands with the people, he was shot by an anarchist who ap- 
proached him as if to shake hands. He was shot September 
6, 1901, and died September 14, 1901. Vice President Roose- 
velt became President and served the remainder of the term. 
At the end of that time he was re-elected (1901) with Charles 
Fairbanks as Vice President. 

The anarchist’s name was Leon Czolgosz (chol’. gosh). 
He was executed at Auburn, New York, October 19, 1901. 


THE TWENTIETH CENTURY. 


450. The Panama Canal. 


Almost from the time of the discovery of the Pacfic by 
Balboa, proposals had been made for the digging of a canal 
across the Isthmus of Panama. But the difficutlies offered by 
the steep mountains and the rivers subject to great floods 
postponed the carrying out of this project, although the dis- 
tance from Panama, on the Pacific, to Colon on the Carribean, 
is only forty-six miles in a straight line. At length, 1881, 
Ferdinand de Lesseps, a French engineer under whose direc- 
tion the Suez Canal had been dug, undertook the cutting of a 
sea-level canal across the Isthmus. The plan was abandoned, 
however, after a gread deal of money had been spent. A sec- 
ond French company then undertook the construction of a 
canal with locks. The people of the United States have al- 
ways been greatly interested in the project of making a canal 
between the Atlantic and Pacific, and since the acquisition of 
Hawaii and the Philippines this interest has, if anything, in- 
creased, Before 1904, however. obstacles of one sort or 
another prevented the realization of this desire. In this 
year, however, events so shaped themselves that it became 
possible for the United States to enter upon the construction 
of this important waterway.—Channing’s History, copyright 1904, 
by the Macmillan Company, New York, p. 583. | 


FOURTH QUARTER 147 


One of the chief questions in dispute was the route the 
canal should take. In June, 1902, Congress ordered that the 
claims of the French in Panama should be bought, and that land 
should be purchased from Colombia if she would sell at a reason- 
able price. If she wouldn’t, then the canal should be routed 
through Nicaragua. When the United States approached 
Colombia in regard to the matter, she refused the sum that was 
offered. Roosevelt was indignant at this and felt Colombia was 
simply putting up the price because she thought the United 
States would pay it. In turn, the people of Panama were in- 
dignant for they realized that if the United States built the 
canal, it meant that millions of dollars would be spent there and 
that the future of the country was secured. As a result in 1903 
the people of Panama revolted against Colombia and set up an 
independent government. Roosevelt at once recognized the new 
government and soon a treaty was made between the new 
republic and the United States and the United States was 
given the right to construct and operate a canal across the isthmus. 

In 1906, the plan was perfected to construct locks rather 
than to dig the canal to sea level. 

But there was much work to be done before actual digging 
would start. The isthmus was a very unhealthful place. Thous- 
ands had dted there while the French were trying to build the 
canal, Fevers and tropical diseases ran riot and the United 
States decided this heavy toll of life must not be exacted from 
the American forces. Consequently our government selected a 
man to clean up the country. The man picked was Dr. Gorgas, 
a Surgeon General in the United States army. He had been the 
main worker in stamping out yellow fever in Cuba after the 
Spanish-American War, and now faced a far more formible 
task in the Panama zone. 

In 1908 Colonel G. W. Goethals was placed at the head of 
the forces to do the actual digging of the canal. For five years, 
discouragement after discouragement beset the workers. Hill- 
sides slid into the canal, filling it up as fast as it was excavated. 
The locks were built and the foundations would crumble, but 
nothing: daunted as the Americans kept on till in 1913 when the 
waters of the two oceans were united by the completed canal. 

Colombia refused to be pacified and in 1921 a treaty was 
made between her and the United States whereby we agreed to 
pay her $25,000,000 and grant her certain privileges in using 
the canal. 


451. The Germany-Venezuela Affair. 


For years, the political affairs of some—in fact most of the 
South American countries had been unsettled. Frequent revolts 


148 FOURTH QUARTER 


and uprisings in Venezuela especially had made life and property 
so unsafe that many European citizens—residents of, or inter- 
ested in business in Venezuela, brought claims for their losses 
against the Venezuelan government. President Castro had been 
unable and unwilling to meet these demands. Nor was he able 
to meet the interest on money borrowed from Europe to con- 
struct railways in Venezuela. Finally, when citizens of Eng- 
land, Germany, and Italy appealed to their governments the 
governments sought to secure redress from the South American 
republic. When these efforts failed, they decided to blockade 
the Venezuelan ports, and in 1902 English, German, and Italian ~ 
warships undertook a Pacific blockade of La Guaira and Puerto 
Cabello. | 

When it finally developed into a warlike move President 
Castro protested. Then President Roosevelt took a hand in 
matters and threatened to send a fleet of warships against the 
blockaders unless the matters was peaceably adjusted. The- 
European nations and Venezuela then agreed to submit the 
quarrel to a mixed commission for arbitration. The finding of 
the commission was that the sums originally demanded were 
greatly in excess of the real damages suffered. The creditors 
were paid but much less than they originally demanded, 


452. The Anthracite Coal Strike. 


The summer of 1902, also witnessed the most far-reaching 
strike in the history of the country, when the miners of an- 
thracite coal refused longer to work on the conditions offered 
them by the owners of the mines or by those who operated 
them. At one time it seemed as if great hardship would be 
caused throughout the North by the lack of the fuel which is 
used for heating houses. President Roosevelt, however, in- 
terfered and appointed five commissioners to hear the con- 
tending parties and to propose, if possible, a basis of settle- 
ment between them, on the understanding that in the mean- 
time the striking miners should return to work. In this way 
suffering was lessened, and Congress, by voting money for 
the salaries and expenses of the Commission, ratified the action 
of the President—Channing’s Bee's copyright 1904, by the 
Macmillan Company, New York, p. 582. 


453. Conservation of Natural Resources. 


The year 1898 was one of almost unexampled agricultural 
prosperity. The West raised enormous crops of bread stuffs 
and, owing to the foreign demand, sold them at prices which 
filled the farmers’ pockets and added largely to the wealth of 
the country. In connection with agriculture, attention should 


FOURTH QUARTER 149 


be called to the preservation of the forests. It has been found 
that, if the streams are unprotected by timber, they become 
-terrents in the spring and disappear in hot weather. If this 
goes on for a long time, the valleys become sterile, and some- 
times uninhabitable. The forests are continually being de- 
stroyed by fires, lumbermen’s axes, and saw mills, and by the 
pulp mills for the manufacture of wood paper and various 
kinds of wooden ware. Since 1891, the federal government 
has set aside large reservations of timber, and a number of 
states have passed laws not only for the preservation of the 
forests but for the planting of trees as well. 

Many of the coal and petroleum mines throughout the 
country have been set aside to be used for the benefit of all 
the people. The government is trying to conserve these val- 
uable resources, and put an end to the old wasteful methods. 

In 1902, the government set aside all moneys received 
from the sale of public lands in seventeen states and terri- 
tories to establish an irrigation system. It is believed that in 
this way many millions of acres of arid lands can be made 
fertile —From Montgomery's “Leading Facts of American H1s- 
tory,’ Ginn & Company, Publishers, pp. 409-10-II-12. 

In all these movements, Roosevelt was the leader. With 
his coming into power, a new force entered national life. From 
his time to the present, our presidents have been leaders—espe- 
cially is this true of Roosevelt and Wilson. Roosevelt plead for 
the conservation of our natural resources for the benefit of gen- 
erations yet to come, and anyone who had plans to this end were 
vigorously backed up by the White House. Among these was 
John Wesley Powell, who knew the region of the Grand Canyon 
of the Colorado, and urged that large dams be built, in which 
to store water, then this should be used to ir rigate the rich but 
arid land of this region. 

Gifford Pinchot was another who gained a hearing. Pinchot 
was Governor of Pennsylvania in 1923, and later became head of 
the Forestry Bureau. He was a student of forestry and argued 
against the great waste in our water supplies, forests, minerals 
and in the irrigation of our arid lands. In this he was backed by 
Senator Newlands of Nevada. 

Due partly to the efforts of these men and partly to those of 
other public spirited men, June 17, 1902 Congress passed the 
Reclamation Act—an act which would make productive vast 
stretches of western desert land. Money to finance the under- 
taking was secured from the sale of public lands. Dams were 
‘built and the water stored, then released to the land as needed. 
This reclaimed land was then sold, and the money used to build 

more dams and reservoirs. In 1911, in Arizona was completed 


150 FOURTH QUARTER 


one of the largest dams built. This was known as the Roosveelt. 
By 1920, about 1,600,000 acres, before an arid waste, had been 
reclaimed, and much of it put in cultivation. 

In 1906, there were two other moves made that resulted in 
revenue to the United States. One had to do with the renting of 
forest lands to ranchers, who pastured their cattle and sheep on 
these lands, government owned. Before, these were pastured 
without pay, now a nominal fee was charged. The other act 
concerned electric companies. Before this these companies had 
used the water power on government lands either without paying 
for it, or by paying a mere fraction of its real worth. 

In 1907, Roosevelt followed a precedent set by Cleveland and 
added 43,000,000 acres to the permanent forests, which were 
Federal owned. 

An elaborate system was now evolved to care for and pro- 
tect these timber lands. Forest rangers were appointed, who 
patroled the lands, watching for forest fires or thieves. Roads 
were built, and telephone and telegraph communication were 
established. The cutting of the timber was also regulated, so 
that no more should be removed than would ordinarily grow in 
that year. 

In 1908, Roosevelt called the convention of Governors, which 
was held in Washington. This convention consisted of the 
governors of the states, senators, representatives, Supreme Court, 
Cabinet and members of the Inland Waterways Commission. The 
effect of this meeting was great—not the least being upon the 
public in general. It awakened them to the fact that the vast 
resources of the United States were not inexhaustible, and that 
they were being wasted recklessly and foolishly. 

The area of national forests had now grown from forty- — 
three to one hundred ninety-four million acres, while the forest 
rangers now numbered 3,000. During the seven and one-half 
years before March, 1909, there had been saved for the public 
more timber land than in all the preceding years. In his con- 
servation project Roosevelt was upheld in every act by the United 
States Supreme Court, and in every case but one the decisions 
were unanimous. 


454, William Howard Taft, Elected President, 1908. 


The year 1908 was election year, and to most it was a 
foregone conclusion that a Republican would be elected. No man 
stood higher in the esteem of the American people than Roosevelt, 
yet he absolutely refused to be considered a candidate for re- 
election. He was by no means tired of the work. “I have had 
an exceedingly good time; I have been exceedingly well treated 
by the American people,’ he wrote to William Allen White. 
Roosevelt would have liked to remain President. He enjoyed the 


FOURTH QUARTER 151 


exercise of power, and the pomp of place, and never tried to deny 
it. In writing to a friend he said, “I have finished my career in 
public life. I have enjoyed it to the full; I have achieved a large 
proportion of what I set out to achieve.” Yet he resisted all at- 
tempts to get him to become a candidate for a third term. But he 
did exert his influence in choosing the Republican candidate. 
Elihu Root was perhaps his favorite, but he realized that Root 
could not be elected because of the opposition of the West to him. 
This narrowed his selection to William H. Taft and Charles E. 
Hughes. 

The convention met in Chicago and was presided over by 
Henry Cabot Lodge. Taft was chosen on a platform heartily 
approved by Roosevelt, and was elected at the November election 
by a large majority. March 4, 1909, he was inaugurated 
President. William J. Bryan had*been the Democrat candidate. 
The tariff question had been the chief issue of the campaign. 


455. Postal Savings Bank—1910. 


In December, 1910, when the two Houses of Congress 
met, President Taft in his message to them commended the 
establishment of Postal Savings Banks. This had been agi- 
tated for some time, but had been opposed by the banking 
interests of the country. The bill as passed created a Board 
of Trustees composed of the Postmaster General, Secretary 
of the Treasury, and the Attorney General. At the time this was 
established one person’s deposits were limited to $100 per month 
and $500 in all. Accounts may be opened with one dollar. Two 
per cent interest is paid.* The first year Congress gave but 
$100,000 to try out the scheme. The plan had been successfully 
tried out in the Philippines. 

One of Taft’s recommendations in his December message 
had been the establishment of a Rural Parcels Post. For 
more than ten years the demand for a parcel post had been 
growing, but had been vigorously fought by the Express Com- 
panies. In August, 1912, the bill was passed, the rates to be 
decided by weight and distance. For this purpose the country 
was divided into eight zones. The maximum weight allowed 
is seventy pounds in the first, second and third zones, and fifty 
pounds in fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh and eighth zones. 


456. Two Constitutional Amendments. 


In 1909, a resolution was adopted by Congress which pro- — 
posed an amendment to the Constitution giving Congress 
power to levy a tax on incomes from any source. All incomes 
over $1,000. Thirty-four states by 1910 had ratified this 


* This has been revised since 1910—see your postmaster. 


152 FOURTH QUARTER 


of married people of over $2,000 are taxable, of unmarried, all 
amendment and early in the year it was approved by enough 
to make it a law, and was known as the Sixteenth Amend- 
ment. This law was especially necessary now since the tariff 
revision had cut off that source of income. If one’s income 
is over $20,000 a 1% increase is added, if over $50,000, a 2% in- 
crease, over $75,000, a 3%, if over $100,000, a 4%, 5% on all 
above $250,000, and 6% on all above $500, 000. It was criti- 
cized as being a rich man’s tax. 

To show what a large amount of revenue it returned, one 
needs but consult figures from Wisconsin, which showed that 
$3,500,000 in taxes were returned the first year. Failure to 
make returns will be fined $20 to $1,000. Fraudulent returns 
are punishable with $2,000 fine, imprisonment for one year, or 
both. 

In 1918, the Seventeenth Amendament having been rati- 
fied by enough states went into effect. It provided for the 
direct election of Senators. The first election held under this 
law was in Georgia, ‘July 15. This Act aimed to prevent cor- 
rupt practices in Congressional elections. 


457. Campaign for the Presidency 1912. 


In spite of the various wise legislative moves during Taft's 
administration, discontent began to creep in against the Repub- 
lican Party. It began first with the Speaker of the House of 
Representatives whom, the Democrats claimed, ruled in an auto- 
cratic way, and gave the average member no chance fora hearing. 

The discontent grew till in the fall of 1910, the Ree 
lost the majority in the House. 

Disputes between Taft and Congress now arose. The 
Democrats, who were now in power, insisted on a revision of the 
tariff. With the aid of some of the Republican, reform measures 
were passed reducing the tariff on sugar, farm implements, 
woolen goods, and iron and steel goods. This was promptly 
vetoed by the President. Not only was there dissentions between 
the Democrats and Taft, but even some of his own party began 
to withdraw their support. This group called themselves 
Progressives. They decided that Taft should not have the nomi- 
nation for another term, so Senator LaFollette of Wisconsin, who ~ 
had headed the movement, became a candidate in 1912. In 
February, Roosevelt, who had returned from his African hunt- 
ing trip, also became a candidate by announcing in his forceful 
way, “My hat is in the ring.” 

When the Republican Convention met in Chicago, the pitiable - 
spectacle was witnessed of two friends bitterly at odds, fighting 
for the greatest gift in the power of the American people to 


FOURTH QUARTER 153 


bestow. Had Taft or Roosevelt either one had the good of the 
Republican Party enough at heart to have stepped aside, either 
one would have secured the nomination and likely the election. 
But neither could or would, and the result was a house divided 
against itself. Roosevelt’s supporters bolted the convention and 
Taft was nominated. 

Roosevelt’s friends now held a convention at Chicago in 
August and nominated him for President on the Progressive 
Ticket. Their platform was a radical change from the Repub- 
lican and favored direct presidential primaries,woman’s suffrage, 
popular election of United States Senators, the initiative and 
referendum, and the short ballot. The stand they took on labor and 
capital was concilatory to both sides—they approved measures 
in favor of labor but denounced any attempt to break up the 
great trusts—advising rather that they be regulated and curbed. 

The split in the Republican Party caused great joy in 
Democratic circles, for it practically assured the victory for the 
Democratic nominee. Champ Clark led in votes for the nomina- 
tion, and when. the convention seemed almost hopelessly dead- 
locked, Bryan threw his support to Governor Woodrow Wilson 
of New Jersey, and secured his nomination. At the November 
election Wilson was elected by a large majority. 


IMPROVED CONDITIONS. 


458. Labor Saving Machinery. 

Before 1860, the farmer produced most of the things used 
and sold a small part of his product to buy a few things he 
could not produce. Since 1860, with almost marvelous in- 
crease in the number and variety of tools or machines to aid 
him, each farmer today produces much more than he could in 
1860. Each farmer today produces a few products, specializes 

farming and sells nearly everything he produces, and buys 
nearly everything he consumes. 

Farm tools were of the rudest. Plows were home made of 
wood as were the farm wagons; grain was cut by hand witha 
scythe, and threshed with a flail. The clothing for the entire 
family was homespun and home made. Candles furnished 
light, and fireplaces, heat. The necessities of life were costly; 
and even in the spacious homes of the wealthy, the comforts 
the poor man knows today, were lacking. In 1800, the greater 
part of the people in the United States made their living by 
agriculture. In 1900, the per cent was about one-third of all 
the people gainfully employed. 

In compiling statistics for agriculture products, one is 
startled into recognizing that we can no longer compute their 


154 FOURTH QUARTER 


value in thousands or even millions, but that we must learn to 
think in billions. This enormous growth is due largely to two 
things, the energy and enterprise of the American farmer, and 
the use of improved farm machinery. The tallow dip that once 
lit the farmer’s two-room log house has given place to acetelyn 
or electric lights in houses hardly surpassed by the best homes 
of city dwellers. The rude farm wagon has given place to the 
automobile, while the heavy housework is done by gasoline power. 
Most farmers sell their milk to dairies and no dairy work is done 
by the farm wife. The open fire place as a means of cooking 
at first gave place to the kitchen range, and that has given place 
to gas or oil stoves. The farmer himself no longer uses the rude 
plow which served his ancestors, but does his work with motor 
plows, which with one plowing turned up five to ten times as 
much as the walking plow did years before. Harvesting which 
used to be a matter of weeks, now is done by one machine which 
cuts, threshes, and bags the grain all at one time. 

It is on the great farms of the West that one sees the 
_ greatest development in farm machinery. In some places, a 
steam plow is used for plowing. A pulverizing harrow, clod 
crusher, and leveler all working at one time prepare the land 
for sewing. Often a row of plows is drawn by a tractor. To 
this is attached a row of harrows, and to this rows of drills to 
seed the land, and rakes to cover it. A machine of this sort 
with sixteen plows in a row can do as much work in one day 
as sixteen plowmen and sixty-four horses. 

This is truly an age of machinery and no one article that 
we use shows the development of machinery more than does 
flour. During the early days of the frontier life, corn was put 
into a hole in a stump and pounded with a heavy po This 
crude manner of reducing the corn to meal a ee by 
the grist or flour mill. These were water turned, and in time 
gave place to mills located more centrally and easily reached 
by rail. Today we have the immense flour mills such as are 
found at Minneapolis and St. Paul where thousands of barrels 
of flour are turned out each day. 


459. Manufacturing and Mining. 


During the period before 1770, manufacturing had been 
mostly carried on in the home, but between 1790-1800 trade 
and commerce were greatly increased. This was due to the 
fact that during this period the factory system was introduced 
into the United States. In 1767, Hargreaves invented the spin- 
ning jenny, Arkwright invented the spinning frame in 1769, 
Compton, the mule spinner in 1784, and Cartwright the power 
loom in 1785. England tried to prevent the United States pro- 


FOURTH QUARTER 155 


fiting by these inventions by passing a law in 1774 which for- 
bade the exportation of machines used in cotton or linen 
manufactures. However, in 1790 Samuel Slater, an English- 
man set up at Pawtucket, Rhode Island, the first machinery 
for spinning used in this country. He had worked in the 
mills in England and constructed the machinery from mem- 
ory. But it was left for Eli Whitney’s famous cotton gin, in- 
vented in 1793 to give the greatest impetus to the cotton in- 
dustry in the United States. In 1790, 200,000 pounds of cotton 
were exported. In 1800, nearly 20,000,000 pound were sent out 
of the country. This rise was due solely to the Whitney in- 
vention. The demand for slaves now began to increase to 
raise the cotton. 

The period 1810-1820 saw the rise of duties on imported 
goods, especially on cotton and woolen goods and iron prod- 
ucts. This did much to encourage manufacturing in the 
United States, since it made competition with foreign goods 
possible. The period 1830-1840 saw the rapid multiplication of 
time and labor-saving machinery. Until 1826, no edged tools 
such as axeS were made in the United States. 1836 saw the 
first use of anthracite coal in smetling of iron. 

Manufacturing towns now began to increase in number 
and population owing to this discovery and the use of water- 
power. This was the work of Cyrus McCormick, and did 
more to revolutionize farm labor than any other invention as 
yet made. The first threshing machine was introduced to take 
the place of the old flail. 

In the five years between 1852-57 the amount of iron 
products manufactured doubled. This growth was due largely 
to the improved transportation facilities between factories 
and the iron and coal mines. Pittsburg had become the center 
of the iron industry and the iron mines of Michigan were being 
developed. 

Woolen manufacturers increased over fifty per cent between 
1850-60. In 1831, there were 1,246,000 spindles in cotton mills. 
In 1860 there were five times as many. 

Probably the most important discovery of this time was the 
Bessemer process of converting iron into steel. One can readily 
see the importance of this in the development of our railroads. 
The manufacture of steel advanced westward until the Great 
Lakes became rimmed with foundaries, these locations being con- 
venient to the iron of the North and the coal of Pennsylvania, 
Ohio, and Illinois. 

The use of a tan eme led to manufacturing on a large 
scale. In 1870, the per capita consumption of iron was 105 
pounds. In 1880, this had increased to 204 pounds. To meet 


156 FOURTH QUARTER 


this increasing demand corporations began to be formed. Enor- 
mous factories were erected and cities grew up around them. 
Productiveness now became along special lines. The farm 
gave over the weaving and spinning of former days. Much 
of the dairy work was also given up, and some special work 
taken up, as stock farming, poultry raising, or grain. The 
factory built cities looked to the country for its food, as the 
country looked to the city for its clothes. This rapid inter- 
change has been made possible by the steam railroad, and is 
rapidly being made quick by the electric interurbans. In 1870, 
there were 252,000 manufacturing establishments in the United 
States employing 2,053,000 people with an annual product of 
$3,385,000,000. In 1880, they had increased to 253,000 factories, 
2,700,000 employees, and $5,349,000 output, and in 1890, to 
322,000 factories, 4,476,000 employees, and $9,056,000,000 pro- 
duct. 

Since 1900, the manufacturers of the South have doubled. 
In cotton manufacturing the advance has been especially note- 
worthy. From Virginia to Georgia is becoming rapidly a manu- 
facturing section. 

But all of this activity along manufacturing lines could not 
have taken place without the discovery and development of 
America’s vast resources of coal and iron, gas, and oil. Without 
these, America would have remained an agricultural country, de- 
pending upon other nations for her fuel, machinery, and all other 
metal products. The demands made for metals during the Civil 
War had much to do with the rapid development of our steel 
industry. But our resources at that time were so undeveloped 
that we had to look to England for much of our iron supplies. 
About 1870, the discovery was made of rich deposits of copper 
and iron in the Lake Superior region, and mills in Buffalo, 
Cleveland, Chicago and Pittsburg began to receive shipments of 
the ore. Soon other mines were opened in Tennessee, Alabama, 
and West Virginia and iron foundries were built in these districts. 
But it was in Pennsylvania that the production of iron goods had 
its greatest growth and by 1895, we imported. but very few steel 
rails from abroad. Instead our exports of steel had grown to 
thousands of tons. At the opening of the 20th century, our 
output of steel was greater than that of both Germany and Great 
Britain, while our export of steel was greater than that of Great 
Britain, which had formerly led in this field. 

But iron was not our only mineral. In 1859, oil was dis- 
covered in Pennsylvania and during the Civil War, the govern- 
ment used great quantities of it. By 1872, petroleum was fourth 
in rank of all our exports. Refineries were established and soon 
the oil was being refined into coal oil, gasoline, paraffin, etc. Later, 


FOURTH QUARTER 157 


. discoveries of oil were made in Oklahoma, Texas, California, 
and in Arkansas, which has proved a remarkable source of oil. 
Coal is another of our valuable minerals. Pennsylvania lead 
in production of hard coal, while Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Alabama, 
Minnesota, Colorado, and Michigan have valuable fields. 

Gold was found in California in 1849, and had much to do 
with the early settlement of the West. Nevada, Montana, Idaho, 
and Colorado also yielded silver, gold, and other metals beyond 
the greediest dreams of early prospectors. 

About 1870 when the iron mines of the Lake Superior region 
were opened, copper was discovered there in paying quantities. 
By 1875 this region produced more than 16,000 tons of copper. 
Later, Montana, Arizona, Colorado, Utah, and Alaska added 
their output to this, making us a leader in the copper industry. 


460. The Federal Reserve System. 


December 23, 1913, the Owen Glass Bill was passed. This 
bill made a comprehensive reorganization of the banks of the 
United States. An organization committee was appointed with 
McAdoo as chairman. The country was divided into twelve 
districts, with each district to have a minimum capital of 
$4,000,000. Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Rich- 
mond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, 
Dallas, and San Francisco were the cities selected for each 
district. The areas of the districts varied from 39,865 square 
miles for New York, to 693,658 for St. Louis. The capital varied 
from a little over four million for Atlanta, to twenty million for 
New York City. , 

Any bank organized under the laws of the state it is in, 
may become a member of the Federal Reserve System. The 
Federal Reserve System was organized in order to stabalize the 
. financial situation of the country and to prevent money panics. 
The panics of 1893 and 1907 occurred because there was no 
organized system of federal banking. There were only individual 
banks, each independent of the others. A run on a bank, though 
perfectly solvent, might cause it to close its doors and take the 
bankrupt law in disgrace.. After the panic of 1907, a discussion 
was begun in earnest about the plan of having a general, or 
Federal Reserve System, on which a bank could draw for funds. 
~The result was the Owen Bill, which became a law in 1913. It 
provided for a central organization of which local banks should 
be members and in which they kept their reserves. In time of 
need they can go to the central organization or Federal Reserve 
and get money. It does not guarantee the deposits of any bank, 
and does not aid banks that are mismanaged. It, if necessary, 
can issue reserve notes, each Federal Reserve Bank being desig- 


158 “FOURTH QUARTER 


nated by a particular letter to identify the notes of this bank. 
Many amendments have been made to the original act passed in 
1913. The system has proved a great success. 


461. Electricity Applied. 

Our present age has well been called the age of elec- 
tricity, and Thomas A. Edison has had more to do with its 
development than any other person. He has patents on more 
than 1,000 electrical devices and is constantly adding to this 
number. To him we owe the incandescent light, an invention 
which has had more to do with the development of our civil 
and social life than we realize at first thought. Many and 
varied as the uses of electricity are at present, it is still per- 
haps in its infancy as far as our knowledge of its usefulness 
is concerned. Between 1890-1900, its use increased twenty- 
seven times. If we but stopped to count up the electrical 
devices used in every day life, we would be surprised. The 
list in the home would include vaccuum cleaners, cooking 
apparatus, lights, telephone, washing machines, electric auto- 
mobiles, and many others. In the present war, electricity 
played no small part, and the submarine owes much of its 
perfection to this wonderful power. Electricity is becoming 
more and more popular as a means of transportation power. 
It has long been used for city railroads, but now the inter- 
urban is growing in favor, and farm and city are becoming 
linked together in a way undreamed of fifty years ago. It is 
safe to say that much of our present industrial prosperity is 
directly due to the use of electricity and it$ continued develop- 
ment will depend largely upon the growth of knowledge along 
electrical lines. 


462. Better Farming. 

Better farming was brought about in the United States by — 
the invention of better tools with which to work. 

One writer asserts that up to the time of the American 
Revolution there had been little improvement in farm machinery 
since the time of the Romans. But by the beginning of the 19th 
century, conditions were beginning to change. Wooden plows 
were being replaced by steel ones, while the threshing machine 
promised to take the place of the old hand flail. 

From this on the advance in living and working conditions 
in rural communities was rapid till now farmers have practically 
all the advantages of city dwellers. The autos and tractors have 
done much to lighten the farmers burden while the gasoline engine 
that runs farm machinery turns the washing machine or the churn 
or cream separator help both farmer and farmer wife. In this 
better farm movement the government has helped. 


FOURTH QUARTER 159 


For some years, there had been a wide spread discussion 
of credit to farmers. In 1913 a commission of nearly 100 
members studied the system abroad and in July 17, 1916, the 
President signed a bill which created a Federal Farm Loan 
Board of five members, which shall control a system of national 
land banks, which make long time loans, secured by farm land 
mortgages. Each man receives $10,000 per year and traveling ex- 
penses. By the law, the United States is divided into twelve Fed- 
eral Land Bank districts, each having a Federal Land bank. 
Springfield, Mass., Baltimore, Md., Columbia, S. C., Louisville, 
Ky., New Orleans, La., St. Louis, Mo., St. Paul, Minn, Omaha, 
Neb., Wichita, Kan., Houston, Tex., Berkeley, Cal., Spokane, 
Wash., were selected as places for the banks. The capital stock of 
each bank must be $750,000. The mortgages were to be from 
five to forty years. Interest must not exceed 6%. Loans 
range from $100 to $10,000, and each borrower must be a 
cultivator of the soil. 


463. Irrigation. 


In 1847, when the Mormons under the leadership of Brigham 
Young started west to find a new home they went with the deter- 
mination to ‘make the desert blossom like a rose,” and in truth 
- they did this very thing. They settled on a spot overlooking the 
Salt Lake Valley in Utah, then brought down the water from the 
mountains to irrigate the fertile soil. They built mills, roads, 
canals, and bridges, and soon had a population of 15,000 people. 
This was the first attempt made in the United States to irrigate 
the rich lands of the West. 

Later when Roosevelt began his famous conservation policy, 
one of the chief works undertaken was the irrigation of western 
lands. In this he was aided by many shrewd westerners who 
saw unlimited possibilities in the arid lands of California, 
Arizona, and other western states. In this work, John Wesley 
Powell was a leader, and advocated the building of a dam to 
store the water from the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. June 
17, 1902, Congress passed the Reclamation Act, which provided 
for a vast amount of western land irrigation. 

, Most of the irrigation projects in California, have been per- 
sonal enterprises except the Klamath and Orland in the northern 
part. Nevada had the Newlands project; Arizona, the Yuma and . 
Salt River; New Mexico, the Rio Grande and Carlsbad; Utah, 
the Strawberry Valley; Colorado, the Grand Valley and: 
Uncompahgre; Nebraska, the North Platte; Wyoming, the 
Riverton, Jackson Lake, and Shoshone; Idaho, the Boise, King 
Hill, and Minidoka; South Dokota, Belle Fourche; North 


160 FOURTH QUARTER 


Dakota, the North Dakota Pumping, and Montana, the Milk 
River, Fort Peck, Lower Yellowstone, Huntley, Flathead, 
Blackfeet, and Sun River. 


464. American Federation of Labor. 


Among the questions arising from our rapid industrial 
expansion were the labor problems. Difficulties had long 


existed between capital and labor and in recent years these _ 


have had disastrous results. Unions were formed for the 
purpose of bettering the condition of the laboring man. These 
Unions finally united under the general management of the 
American Federation of Labor. Its policy has been to try 
to adjust labor troubles without open breaks with the em- 
ployer. It has held itself free of politics and has worked 
along lines independent of party policies. In turn employers 
formed associations to resist the demands of the Unions. Usu- 
ally breaks between capital and labor are now referred to a 
board of arbitration. 

The American Federation of Labor began in 1881, but did 
not take that name for five years. It began with the federation 
of about 100 union men of different trades. Its local organizations 
were known as “locals,” and dealt directly with the employers. 
The Federation was called upon only in emergencies. 

In 1923, the Federation claimed 4,000,000 due paying mem- 
bers. It owns, its own headquarters in Washington and has a 
representative now as a member of the President’s Cabinet. For 
many years the late Samuel Gompers was at the head of the 
Federation and had much to do in securing the passage of desired 
labor legislation. 


465. ‘Improved Rural Conditions. 


In addition to the improvement of labor saving machinery ; 


which has been fully discussed in previous topics, the improve- 


ment of roads, building of school houses, the use of the tele- 


phone, electric lights, the automobile, State fairs, farmer’s clubs, 
the increase of newspapers and magazines, and the radio have 
all had great influence in improving living conditions on the farms 
at the present time. 


THE WORLD WAR. 
466. Peace Treaties, The Work of Mr. Bryan. 


~ During 1914-15-16, treaties were ratified with France, Spain, | 


Great Britain, Russia, Italy, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, China, 


_ and many of the Central and South American Republics whereby 


each argued to submit all disputes not covered by existing treaties 


ve 


FOURTH QUARTER TG age 


to an international commission. Each country bound itself to 
refrain from hostilities for the period of one year, or until the 
Commission had had time to reach a decision in the matter. These 
treaties have sometimes been called in derision “cooling off’ 
treaties,’ in that they require a nation to wait one year before 
beginning hostilities—a period of time in which the nation’s 
temper may “cool off.” These treaties have been the subject of 
much criticism by opponents of the Wilson rule in that the nation 
objecting can do nothing toward hindering or stopping the offense 
which has been the cause of complaint, for the period of twelve 
months. It, however, shows the trend of the times toward arbi- 
tration rather than means of force. 

As Secretary of State in the Wilson Cabinet much of the 
work of these treaties fell to Mr. W. J. Bryan, who because of 
them and his previous interest, has been called the “apostle of 
peace.” | 

The treaty between Bolivia and the United States was rati- 
fied by the Senate August 13, 1914, and proclaimed January 9, 
1915. That with Brazil was proclaimed October 30, 1916. | 

The peace treaty with China was proclaimed October 23, 
1915, and that with Chile, January 22, 1916. 

Costa Rica Peace Treaty with the United States was pro- 
claimed November 13, 1914. The Peace Treaty between the 
United States and Denmark was proclaimed January 20, 1915; 
that with Ecuador, January 24, 1916. The Peace Treaty with 
France was proclaimed January 23, 1915, and that with Great 
Britain November 11, 1914. 

- The treaty between Guatemala and the United States was 
ratified by the Senate August 13, 1914, and proclaimed October | 
13, 1914; that with Hondurus was proclaimed July 28, 1916. 

The treaty with Italy was proclaimed March 2, 1915, and 
with Norway October 22, 1914. 

The treaty with Paraguay was proclaimed March 7, 1915; 
with Peru, March 6, 1915; with Portugal, October 27 1914; with 
Russia, March 25, 1915; with Spain, December 23, 1914; with 
Sweden, January 12, 1915; with Uruguay, February 26, 1915. 

Treaties with several countries were discussed but not com- 
pleted. That with the Argentine Republic was advised August 
13, 1914. That with the Dominican Republic was signed at 
Washington February 17, 1914. That with Greece was advised 
by the Senate October 30, 1914; and that with the Netherlands 
August 13, 1914; with Nicaragua, August 13, 1914; that with 
Panama was signed September 20, 1913. The peace treaty with 
Persia was signed February 4, 1914, and ratification was advised 
by the Senate August 13, 1914. 


of 162 FOURTH QUARTER 


The treaty with Salvador was signed at Washington August 
7, 1913, and ratification advised by the Senate August 13, 1914; 
that with Switzerland was signed February 13, 1914 at Washing- 
ton and ratification advised by the Senate August 13,:1944, 

The treaty between Venezuela and the United States was 
signed at Caracas March 21, 1914, and ratification advise by the 
Senate August 13, 1914. 


467. The Troublesome Mexican Border. 


In 19138, when Wilson became President, he faced the 
question of whether he would or would not recognize Huerta 


as Provisional President of Mexico. During the year 1912, 
Mexico had been the scene of greatest disorders. Insurrec- 
tions had broken out in many places and the Madero govern- 
ment had been unable to cope with it. The Taft administra- 
tion policy had been one of non-interference. Citizens of the 
United States had been warned to stay out of Mexico, not to 
meddle in her political affairs, shipments of war material were 
declared unlawful, and it seemed we were to leave Mexico 
alone to settle her own affairs. Madero had excited neither 
the loyalty nor respect of his people, and Diaz continued to 
cause him trouble till February 23, he and his Vice President 
Jose Suarez, and Finance Minister Gustavo Madero, were 


arrested and shot, as the Diaz faction declared ‘ “while they | 


were trying to escape.” 


General Huerta at once assumed the title of Provisional — 


President, called a session of Congress, and demanded recone 
nition from the United States. 


A counter revolution of the farmers of the North was now 
begun, and Carranza was made commander-in-chief of the — 
Constitutionalist forces. The rebellion against Huerta was 


mainly carried on by the poor small land owners and peons. 
Great Britain and France recognized Huerta as legal 


President and the ‘Mexican situation” began to assume alarm- 
ing proportions in the United States. Some declared if we did 
not recognize Huerta, we were showing sympathy with the 


rebels; others declared that we should put Huerta out by force 
and establish a protectorate over Mexico. Others said we 
should aid Huerta to maintain order. | 


When Wilson entered office, he faced this question and 


declared we could not afford to interfere. But armed warships 
were sent to Vera Cruz, and to Guaymas on the West Coast, 
and an extra military force was stationed at Galveston, Texas. 

Wilson seemed inclined not to recognize Huerta unless 
he was a regularly elected President. Henry Lane Wilson, 
Ambassador to Mexico, resigned because he found himself 


fe 


Oe SOS 


FOURTH QUARTER 163 


unable to agree with President Wilson on this question. Presi- © | 
dent Wilson now sent ex-Governor Lind of Minnesota to see’ 
if he could make some arrangements for the election of a new 
President in Mexico which the United States government 
would feel free to recognize. His efforts were useless. Huerta 
would give no assurance that he would not be a candidate for 
the Presidency in the election set for October 26. In Mexico 
Madero’s position was weakening, although he had been elect- 
ed President on the election, October 26. Wilson declared the 
election had been fraudulently held and refused to recognize 
him. In the North, Carranza had set up an independent gov- 
ernment. The closing weeks of 1913 saw fighting between the 
Constitutionalists under Carranza and the Federals under the 
command of Huerta. 

In February, 1914, Wilson lifted the embargo on arms; 
this was done to aid the Constitutionalists. April 9, a party of 
American bluejackets were arrested in Tampico. Apologies 
were offered and they were released by Huerta. Admiral 
Mayo insisted that a salute be fired to the American flag, since 
the Mexicans had insulted it by arresting the sailors. Huerta 
refused. April 14, almost the entire United States navy was 
ordered to Mexican waters. April 18, Wilson informed Huerta 
that unless the salute was fired before 6 p. m. the following 
day, force would be used. Huerta still refused. April 21, 
marines were ordered to seize the customs house at Vera 
Cruz. April 25, Argentina, Brazil, and Chile representatives 
at Washington offered to act as mediators between Huerta 
and Wilson. May 20, they met at Niagara Falls. Carranza 
prevented any permanent peace being made and Huerta re- 
signed July 15, and was succeeded by Carbajal. September 23, 
/Villa declared war on Carranza, his former chief. Things 
went from bad to worse. September 18, 1915, a conference 
was held in New York and Carranza was recognzed as Presi- 
dent. 

Trouble broke out again when Villa caused the murder 
of nineteen United States citizens at Santa Ysabel, when a 
train was stopped and the nineteen deliberately taken off and 
shot. March 9, 1916, Columbus, New Mexico, was raided by 
1500 bandits, headed by Villa. The town was looted and 
many civilians killed and wounded. March 15, our troops 
crossed the border to get Villa dead or alive. One of the 
greatest blots on the Wilson administration was that Villa was . 
still alive after our troops returned home. 

December 1, 1916, a constitutional convention bonvened 
in Mexico which succeeded in drafting a revised Constitu- 


164 ; FOURTH QUARTER 


tion. March 11, an election was held and Carranza was 
elected President. May 1, he was inaugurated. 


468. War in Western Europe. 


In the summer of 1914, a prince and his wife were murdered 


in a little town, Serajevo, in Bosnia. The prince was Archduke 


Ferdinand, heir apparent to the Austria throne. While the true ~ 
facts in the case will probably never be known, the murder was 


probably the work of individual anarchists and had no government 
connection, But Austria preferred to believe otherwise, and made 
most stringent demands on Serbia, which she accused of fostering 
the plot. If Serbia was to remain a separate nation, there was 
nothing for her to do but refuse the demands, and this she did. 
The belief is general that Austria and Germany wished to absorb 
the smaller states of Central Europe—Serbia, Montenegro, 


Roumania, Bulgaria, Turkey and Greece, and make Germany. 


the dominant power of Europe. The demands on Serbia seemed 
to bear out this theory, and Russia, unwilling to see Germany 
acquire a control that would. threaten her existence, objected. 

Germany now backed Austria, as was expected. France, 
forced by her position, took sides with Russia and Serbia, while 
England stood neutral, her decision hanging in the balance. But 
when Germany with utter disregard of all treaties to the contrary, 


swept through Belgium, supposedly a neutral country, on her 


way to Paris; England acted promptly, putting forth all the power 
of her army against the oncoming German horde. Like France, 
England was forced into the war. Long a contender with 
Germany for European power and world trade, England saw her 
downfall should Germany be victorious. 

The navy of Great Britain in the early years of the war was 


the greatest possible aid to the Allies. It is a rule of war, that a _ 


nation at war with another nation may seize ships or goods be- 
longing to that nation. It also has a right to seize all war supplies 


—called contraband goods—destined for that nation, no matter — 


by what ship they are carried or to what port they are billed. 
England now took advantage of these rights to the fullest. She 


seized all German ships, blockaded German ports, and began a 


systematic search of all ships for war supplies intended for 
Germany. Thus the overwhelming superiority of England on 
the high seas gave triumph for the Allies. England and the other 


allies could trade freely with other nations, could send and receive - 


supplies freely, for Germany had no battleships to dispute her 
right. 


The United States now built up an enormous trade with : 


England and France in foodstuffs and war supplies. But this 


very trade was to result in our being drawn into the struggle — 


which was now assuming worldwide importance. 


————— 


FOURTH QUARTER 165 


469. Efforts at Diplomacy. 


When one stops to consider that at the outbreak of the 
European war there were over 4,000,000 foreign born Austrians 
and Germans in the United States and over 9,000,000 of Ger- 
mans born in the United States of native born German parents one 
sees why President Wilson delayed as he did. This fact alone 
would make the President of the United States hesitate before 
declaring war on both Austria and Germany. 

Therefore on August 4, 1914, he issued a formal proclama- 
tion of neutrality and on August 5, sent notes to the belligerents 
saying he would be glad to act as mediator at any time they 


- might desire. 


He urged the Americans to remain impartial in thought as in 
action—an attitude even Wilson soon saw was impossible. 

Our first difficulties arose over our shipping on. the seas, 
and our first note of protest of the infringement of our rights was — 
sent to England, not Germany. The advent of the submarine 
into naval warfare now introduced a new note of discord. Great 
Britain declared all food supplies contrabands of war. Germany 
in reply declared a blockade of English ports thus leaving the 
United States without the old security of the International War 
Code. We were forced to complain that Britain was interfering 
in our trade, and that Germany was blowing up our ships and 
killing our seamen. In November, 1915, a note of marked 
severity was given to Sir Edward Grey in regard to England’s 
treatment of our commerce, again in the summer of 1916, a 
second protest was made to Grey in regard to treatment of cer- 
tain American firms put on a “Black List” by the British 
Foreign Office. But to both, Grey replied in pacific terms, and 
a break was avoided. 

But the troubles with the German government over the sub- 
marine devastations were not so easily adjusted. The spring 
of 1915 was an anxious time on this account for the President. 
He had issued a note warning them that the government would 
hold the German government to a strict accountability should 
any overt act be committed. In quick succession came the tor- 
pedoeing of the Falaba, Cushing, Gulflight, Arabic, Hesperian, 
Sussex, Marina, and the Lusitania, May 8, 1915, in which over 
1100 lives were lost, more than 100 being American citizens. 
The German reply to protests the President now made were 
wholly unsatisfactory. A second note was sent by the President 
and a somewhat consiliatory reply sent by Germany. But 
August 19, the White Star liner Arabic was torpedoed off the 
southern coast of Ireland and more American lives were lost. 
Count Benstorff, the German Ambassador, realized the serious- 


166 | FOURTH QUARTER 


ness of the situation and went personally to the President. He 
disavowed the act and said Germany would pay indeminties, but 
in early September the Hesperian was sunk with further loss 
of American lives. Again Germany promised to give over the 
submarine campaign, but in March 24, 1916 the Sussex with 


many Americans was destroyed, Wilson now declared Germany 


must give up the destruction of American lives or sever diplo- 


matic relations. This she agreed to do, but later rep her 


promise, and war was declared. 
470. Sinking of the Lusitania. 


In the winter of 1915, a German order went out to sink 


all British merchant vessels wherever found. Because of an 
old and time honored international law that merchant vessels 
of any enemy may not be sunk if it does not offer resistance, 
unless the safety of the passengers and crew is provided for. 
For this reason, American citizens did not hesitate to travel on 
British merchant vessels. But May 7, 1915, when a German 
submarine sank without warning, a great British liner, the 
Lusitania, the United States realized that her citizens were not 
safe from outrage on the high seas. In the disaster hundreds of 


innocent victims were drowned, both men and women, and even 


small children. Some of the victims were American citizens. 
This aroused the people of the United States as nothing before 
had done, and on every side, grew the demand that we sever 
all relations with Germany and declare war at once. 


471. The Federal Hight Hour Act. 
In 1916, the locomotive engineers, firemen, conductors, and 


trainmen’s brotherhoods of some 230 railways announced their 


intention of striking for an eight hour day, with no reduction in 
pay, and time and a half for overtime. They refused to arbitrate 
and called a strike for the first Monday in September if their 
demands were not met by that time. The situation seemed up 
to the President for settlement and on Tuesday August 29, he 
went before Congress and proposed a bill to give the men their 
demands. Mr. Adamson of Georgia drew up such a bill which 
established the eight hour day, to be in force from January 1, 
1817. The bill while bitterly assailed passed both house and 


senate and signed by the President on Sunday before the strike © 


was to take place on Monday. 


; 472. Mr. Wilson Re-Elected in 1916. : 
In the midst of all the uncertainty in regard to Germany’s 


submarine warfare, came the campaign of 1916. Wilson was 


again the Democratic nominee, and was chosen as such by the © 


FOURTH QUARTER “167 


convention which met in St. Louis. The Republicans chose 
Charles E. Hughes on the third ballot at their convention in 
Chicago. When the election came in November, Hifghes carried 
all the large industrial and commercial states of the North and 
east except Ohio. Wilson of course carried the Solid South. 
It at first seemed Hughes election was certain when the returns 
from the West showed Wilson gaining. But it was left for 
California to cast the deciding votes in favor of Mr. Wilson 
who was elected with a gain of 7,000,000 over his popular vote 
er 1912. 

Most of the Socialist vote was turned to Wilson because of 
the labor legislation he had succeeded in passing, and because 
they felt he had kept the United States neutral, and out of the 
European War, 


DECLARATION OF WAR. 


473. The United States Declares War on Germany. 

April 6, 1917, the President signed the joint resolution of . 
Congress and issued a proclamation declaring a state of war 
wth Germany. : 

April 8, Austria-Hungary declared that it had severed 
diplomatic relations with the United States. When Wilson 
declared war on Germany, April 6, 1917, he did not at that 
time include Austria. Later in the year a formal declaration 
of war against Austria was made, though we refused to re- 
ceive her minister, Count Farnowski, several months before. 

Note.—Read President Wilson’s address to Congress, April 
2, 1917, advising Congress to declare war. It has been said this 
address “will make him twmmortal” and that it 1s one of the 
great political documents in the history of the world.’ It has 
been translated into French and read in all the schools in France. 


474. Selling Liberty Bonds. 

Our entry into the struggle meant not only to raise an army 
of several million men, but billions of money to feed, clothe, and 
transport these men. Part of this was raised by levying heavy 
income taxes and taxes on industrial profits, the rest was 
secured through Liberty Loans. 

Bonds and War Saving Stamps were sold to the people. 
These bore various rates of interest and were non taxable. 

Meetings were held in various localities, in churches, clubs, 
schools, and even on the streets where the bonds were sold. 
Each postman became a salesman of stamps and bonds. It has 
been estimated that at least 4,500,000 people bought bonds of 
the First Liberty Loan issue and that 21,000,000 bought them 
of the fourth issue. 


FOURTH QUARTER 


The first call was for $7,000,000,000, the largest sum any 
nation had ever undertaken to raise all at one time. It was 
oversubscribed ‘as were all the other calls. The total raised 
was over $30,000,000,000, some of which was loaned to the 
Allies. i 


475, The Selective Draft. 


When the need arose to raise men for foreign service, the 
question came up as to how this should be done. Some advised 
against the draft as contrary to American traditions. Others 
argued that to defend one’s country was a duty. Therefore 
May 18, 1917, Congress passed the selective draft law which 
made all males between 21 and 31 liable for military duty. June 
5, was decided upon as registration day. In August, 1918, Con- 
gress extended the age limit from 18 to 45, with September 12, 
as the new registration day. ‘Many volunteered both for the navy 
and army before they were drafted, 

When the Armistice was signed: in November, 1918, there 
were in Europe or on the way to~Europe more than 2,000,000 
American soldiers. There were about the same number in camps 
. at home. 


Our losses in killed, wounded, missing, and prisoners were 
more than 225,000. 


476. The ‘‘Miracle of Transportation.”’ 


a . wos 
To most people a war means raising men.. But with our 


entrance into the world war, there was a still greater problem— 
that was the problem of transportation of men and supplies. To 
transport men and sufficient supplies across thousands of miles 
of land and 3000 miles of water is no small undertaking, 
especially to a country which had depended on other countries 
for its water transportation. To get the men across was one 
problem, to get the quantities of food and materials for their 


care was quite another. United States shipping had been © 
neglected for vears. It had to be resumed, ships built and sea- 
men trained. Even ship yards had to be built. The government — 


statistics are responsible for the following figures which critics 
say can not be proved. However they are given, and may be 


compared by the student with figures given by opponents of the — 


Wilson regime. By November, 1918, there were 431 transport 


ships in the service of the army of over 3,000,000 deadweight — 


tons. 

In June, 1918, 12,261 troops and 2,798 marines were sent 
across. By December, the number had grown to 50,000 per 
month, and had reached 84,000 by March, 1919. The total 
embarkations on April, May, June, and July are what Europe 


FOURTH QUARTER papper \ 


called “‘America’s Transport Miracle.” The number in April 
reached 118,637; in May, 245,950: in June 278,756; in July 
306,185. By the time of the Armistice, the totals reached 2 045, 169 
troops and 30,665 marines. 

; In June, 1917, we shipped our first supplies. These 
amounted to 16,000 tons. By October of the same year, the 
shipment amounted to 750,000 tons per month. 5,153,000 tons 
of supplies were sent to our soldiers in France, and of this, 95% 
was sent in American ships. 

In discussing this topic, it would not be fair to omit paying 
a just tribute to our navy. They guarded over 2,000,000 men 
on their way to France, they protected our shores from sub- 
marines, they escorted tonnage to France with a loss of only 
0.009% and tonnage from France with a loss of 0.013%. 

Our destroyers proved their mettle time and time again. As 
one soldier put is, “The sight of an American destroyer in the 
danger zone was as welcome to a»United States transport, as 
the sight of a policeman when you know there’s a burglar in 
the house.”’ 

Our mine layers too made the North Sea safe with their 
submarine barrages. The mine barrage more than 230 miles 
in length perhaps did more to break the German naval power 
than any other one thing. 

- It was on September 7, 1916, that the U. S. Shipping Board 
was created. Edward N. Hurley was put at its head, although he 
was a man of no experience in ship-building work. MHis in- 
competence was but aggravated by Secretary of War Baker’s 
errors of judgment. Hence'in dwelling on the failure of our 
ship building program, the blame must be divided. Baker’s 
frequent change of orders in regard to changing troop ships to 
cargo carriers or vice versa were but the cause of confusion 
worse confounded. Yet it was not till after the Armistice that 
the United States really saw how complete a failure it had been. 
The shipping board took credit for the building of many ships 
it had siezed from Germany or had commandered from other 
nations. | 

Up to March 22, 1918, the Shipping Board had actually 
built and placed in foreign service but two vessels aggregating 
17,600 tons dead weight. 

, Not only was our ship building program a failure but Hog 

Island became a synonym of profiteering. After the true facts 
became known, it was found that the ships Hurley had given out 
as coming from the Shipping Board had really been built in 
private yards, and later taken over by the Board. . 

But by August, 1918, our ship yards were fairly complete 
and ready for real operations. At that time there were 114 


; me 


/170 No FOURTH QUARTER 
J 
/ ship yards fully equipped and 44 partially equipped in the United 
' States—48 on the Pacific coast, 38 on the Atlantic, 16 on the 
Gréat Lakes, and 16 on the Gulf of Mexico. 
“Pn January, 1919, the American Merchant fleet was United 
“States owned steamers 3,000,000 tons; steamers under construc- 


/ tion 6,000,00 tons; 3,000,000 tons owned by private individuals 


of a total of 12,000, 000 tons dead weight. 


Of the 2,079,880 men taken to France more than 1,000,000 — 


were taken in E nglish vessels. Of the cargoes of 5,153,000 tons, 
less than 5% were carried in allied ships, the rest in captured 
vessels, and only 79,000 tons were lost at sea. The navy gave out 
figures at the close of the war showing that 4614% of our men 
were carried in American ships; 4814 in British; the balance in 


- eee cee ee ea : y 


French and Italian. The United States furnished 8234% of 


the naval escort, Great Britain 1444% and France 3%%. 


477. ‘‘Lafayette, We are Here.’’ 

General John Pershing was made Commander-in- Chief of 
the American Expeditionary Forces. By June, 1917, he was in 
Paris at work with the other allied generals. One of his first 
visits in Paris was to the tomb of Lafayette where he placed a 
wreath of flowers, in memory of the service Lafayette had 
rendered to United States in our War of Independence. In the 
words of Col. C. E. Stanton, who said, “Lafayette, we are here,” 
the United States had now gone to France to return that aid 
rendered us more than one hundred years ago. 


478. Chateau-Thierry; St. Mihiel; Meuse-Argonne. 


Notre. These three engagements if treated fully would fill 
a whole volume, and can but be sketched here. However, the 


student should not be satished with this, but read a full account : 


in some large history of the World War. The Literary Digest 
History of the World War is recommended. 
Chateau-Thierry is located about midway between Paris’ 
and Rheims in the southern part of the department of Aisne. 
March 21, 1918 the last great German drive on Paris began. 
March 28, General Pershing put at the disposal of Marshall 


Foch four divisions of American troops at Montdidier in the 


southern part of the department of Somme. They showed their 
courage and at Cantigny (about one. mile northwest of Mont- 
didier) on May 28, they proved a match for veteran troops. 
June 6 saw fierce fighting at Belleau Wood, and in July, at 
Chateau-Thierry and along the Marne, they helped hold the 
Germans in their last desperate attempt to reach the French 
capital. ° 

By August, 1918 the American troops in France numbered 
1,500,00. Just ‘south of Verdun on the river Meuse is a place 


re fea te tot ae oe 
ee re ™ - ~ 


wre ae 


the battle waged, but the force of the American army was 


FOURTH QUARTER 


known as St. Mihiel. This sector had long been a G¥ 
stronghold. The first offensive movements of our body of ti 
was against this position. September 12, the battle opened w 
a heavy bombardment from the American artillery. For fot 
hours this continued, then seven divisions of the American army 
went “over the top.” All that day and all the following night 


irresistable, and after twenty-four hours of heroic work the 
position was taken, with 20,000 prisoners. By this victory about 
two hundred miles of territory was retaken for France, and the 
Germans were driven back almost to the German boundary. It 
was ovr first great battle and was a complete victory. : 
“From September 26 to November 11, the American forces 
were constantly engaged in fighting in the Meuse-Argonne 
Campaign, with the chief struggle centering around Sedan, a 
sfong German position. Sedan is in the Northeastern part of 
e department of Ardennes, near the Belgian border. Fully 


one-third of the Americans engaged in this campaign were either 
killed or wounded. 


It was in this campaign that the Germans were -convinced 
of the uselessness of further resistance, and when September 19, 
1918, Bulgaria surrendered to the Allies, the Austrian Army was 
defeated on the Italian front, then on October 5 the German 
chancellor asked our President tc take steps looking toward a 
truce, and ultimate peace. 


479, The Armistice. : 
When Germany saw her troops being more and more com- 


_. pletely beaten in the war, she became more insistant that a peace 
_ be agreed*upon and on November 11th, an armistice was signed 


which brought to a close one of the greatest wars of the 
civilized world. When the collapse of Germany came, it was 
complete. The Kaiser gave up his throne and fled to Holland, 
where he still lives in seclusion. The crown prince also fled, and 


ta Republic in Germany was proclaimed. 


480. The Treaty of Versailles. 


Work on the treaty continued all winter. December 4, 
President Wilson sailed for France, to join in a grand conference 
of the powers. Time and again the greed and jealousies of the 
nations seemed destined to disrupt the meeting and send the 
members home with nothing accomplished. The Americans had 
entered the war in defense of an ideal, the European nations 
for sheer self-preservation or territorial gains. The view-points 
of the two seemed irreconciliable. However, June 28, the treaty 
was finished and signed at Versailles, just outside of Paris. 


t 


FOURTH QUARTER 


mere were three chief divisions to the treaty. The first 
to do with certain territorial changes. Finland, Poland, 
echoslovakia, and Yugoslavia were recognized as independent 
rates. Alsace-Lorraine was restored to France; Belgium, 
Wenmark, and Italy were given new and enlarged boundaries 
at the expense of Germany and Austria; Austria and Hungary 
became separate states. German possessions in Shantung, China, 
were given to Japan, with the agreement that later they were to 
be returned to China. 

The second division had to do with the amount of in- 
demnity Germany and her allies had to pay the allies of France. 

The third division concerned the establishment of a League 
of Nations. ' 

In September, the treaty of peace with Germany came up 
for vote and was rejected by the Senate. ‘ 


' ‘ . 3 
THE WORLD AT PEACE—RECENT EVENTS. \ 
481. United States Senate Rejects the Treaty. X 


Perhaps no single event ever aroused more discussion in * 
the United States than the signing of the Peace Treaty in 
Versailles. Supporters of President Wilson and his fourteen 
points hailed it as the dawn of a new era, a sort of a millenmium, - 
while his opponents viewed it as a tragedy for the United States — 
if the Senate accepted it. Just how much of this was due to - 
political influence is hard to say. Some of it was undoubtedly 
due to this—both those who opposed and those who approved. — 
Yet recognition must be taken of the fact that the war had cost 
us heavily in money and lives—the high ideal we had tried to 
save had been dragged in the mud of petty bickerings and 
greedy quarrels over who shall and who shall not profit in the 
land readjustments. We had ingrained in our belief the Monroe 
doctrine, to dabble in European politics seemed beneath our | 
standards. Therefore, it was not much to be wondered at that — 
the American people balked at accepting a thing which would 
saddle them with the job of financing and policing Europe. 
Time has shown that it was not so much Wilson and his ideals 
that were distrusted as it was the attitude of Europe. At least 
when the treaty came before the Senate in September it was — 
rejected. tes 


482. Two Amendments to the Constitution, 


Two amendments were made to the Constitution during this 
period—the 18th and the 19th. The 18th referred to the liquor 
question and the 19th to women’s voting. 


= 


